語詞分類
齊莎莉(Zeitoun 2007)將萬山魯凱語分為11類語詞:
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詞綴
下列為萬山魯凱語的詞綴來自齊莎莉(Zeitoun 2007)。- a- 'when'
- a- (action/state nominalization)
- a- 'plural'
- -a 'beyond (in time or space)'
- -a 'irrealis'
- -a 'imperative'
- -ae (state nominalization)
- a- ... -ae; allomorph: ... -ae (objective nominalization; negative imperative)
- amo- 'will'
- -ane (meaning unknown; used on verbs to insult someone)
- -a-nga 'imperative' (mild requests)
- apaa- 'reciprocal causative' (dynamic verbs)
- apano- 'like to, prone to, have a tendency to'
- apa'a 'reciprocal causative' (stative verbs)
- apa'ohi- 'split (causative form)'
- -ci 'snivel'
- dh- 'invisible'
- i- 'at'
- -i 'irrealis'
- -i- ... -e (marking of the oblique case on personal and impersonal pronouns)
- -ka 'predicative negation'
- ka- 'in fact, indeed, actually'
- ka- ... -ae 'genuine, real, original'
- kala- ... -ae 'temporal nominalization'
- kapa ~ kama- 'continuously'
- kapa ... -nga 'all, every'
- ki- 'modal negation'
- ki- ... -ae 'whose'
- k<in>-a- ... -ae 'more and more'
- la- 'plural'
- la-ma'a- 'reciprocal'
- -lo 'plural' (demonstrative pronouns)
- m- (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with k-, p-, or ? in its non-finite form)
- ma- (stative (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with ka- in its non-finite form)
- ma- ... -le (forms 'tens')
- ma-Ca- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with pa-Ca; Ca refers to the reduplication of the first consonant)
- maa- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with paa)
- maa- ... -e (~ paa- ... -e; maa- (dual reciprocal) + -e (meaning unknown))
- maaraka- 'each/both'
- maatali- ... -le/-lo '(a number of) floors'
- maka- 'finish'
- maka- ... -le/-lo (~ paka- ... -le/-lo) 'up to N-/for N- days/months/years'
- maka'an- (attaches only to aleve 'below' and lrahalre 'above')
- makini- ... -(a)e (~ pakini- ... -(a)e) 'all'
- mali- (~ pali) 'along'
- ma'ohi (~ pa'ohi) 'split'
- m-o- (~ o-) 'holds X's ritual (where X = household name)' (attaches to household names to form dynamic verbs)
- m-o- (~ o-) 'toward'
- mo- 'anti-causative'
- m-ore (~ ore-) 'perform'
- mota'a- (~ ota'a-) 'raise'
- n- 'visible'
- -na 'still'
- naa- 'continuously'
- -nae 'place where'
- -nae 'time when'
- -nga 'already'
- -nga 'superlative'
- ni- 'counterfactuality (irrealis)'
- ni- ... -a 'concessive'
- o- 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
- o- ... -e 'dress well' (derives verbs from nouns)
- o-ara- 'only' (attached to verbs)
- o-ka'a- ... -le/-lo (~ ko'a- ... -le/-lo) 'a number of )recipients'
- om- (~ m- / ~ ?) 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
- o-tali (~ tali- / ~ toli) 'wrap up, pack up'
- o-tali (~ tali-) 'made of'
- o-tara- (~ tara-) 'a number of months / years'
- taro- (doublet form: tao-) 'group of persons in movement'
- o-ta'i- (~ ta'i-) 'precede'
- o-'ara- (~ 'ara-) 'early'
- pa- 'causative'
- pa- 'every N-times'
- paori 'stick to, think about'
- pa'a- ... -ae '(what is) left'
- pe- 'forbiddance (?)'
- pi- 'local causative'
- po- 'causative of movement'
- po- 'bear, grow N' (attaches to nouns)
- saka- 'external'
- samori- 'keep on ... -ing' (attaches only to the root kane'to eat')
- sa'api- 'prone to, inclined to'
- so- 'tribute'
- ta- (subjective nominalization)
- ta- 'inalienability' (kinship and color terms)
- ta- ... -(a)e 'place where'
- ta- ... -ae 'time when'
- ta- ... -n-ae (forms derived locative nominal)
- taka- 'a number of persons'
- tako- 'while'
- tala- 'container' (?; found only with the root ove'eke)
- tali- 'belong to'
- ta'a- 'with (a group of persons)'
- ta'a- ... -le/-lo 'measure with an extended arm' (bound numerals)
- to- 'do, make, produce, build'
- toka- ... -(a)e 'use ... for, by ... -ing'
- to'a- 'use ... to, for'
- 'a- 'instrument/manner nominalizer'
- 'a- ... -e 'have a lot of'
- 'aa- 'turn into'
- 'aka- 'Nth' (ordinal prefix 'a- + stative marker ka- (non-finite form))
- 'ako- (doublet form: 'ako- ... -ae) 'speak (out)'
- 'ako- 'barely, a little'
- 'ako- ... -le 'say a number of times'
- 'ako- ... -nga 'more'
- 'ali- 'from (in time or space)' (< 'aliki '(come) from')
- 'ano- 'walk, ride, take'
- 'ano- 'unknown meaning' (only attaches to stative roots)
- 'ano-Ca- 'along/with a number of persons (in movement)' (attaches to bound numeral forms and certain other roots)
- 'ano- ... -ae 'entirely, completely, cease, alleviate'
- 'ao- ... -le/-lo 'the Nth time' (ordinal prefix 'a- + 'o- ... -le/-lo 'a number of times')
- 'apaka- ... -le/-lo 'the Nth day' (ordinal prefix 'a- + paka- ... -le/-lo 'up to/for a number of days / months / years)
- 'api- 'like ... -ing'
- 'a-po- 'as a result of'
- 'apo- 'come out'
- 'asa- ... -ae 'what's the use of'
- 'asi- (meaning unknown; found only once in the word 'work')
- 'i- 'passive'
- 'i- 'verbalizer' (from nouns; polysemous prefix). Semantic core of 'i-N is 'get, obtain-N', although it can also be glossed as 'get, harvest, gather, look after, bear, have for, kill, etc.'
- 'i- 'put on, wear' (derives verbs from nouns)
- 'ia- ... ae 'because of, out of'
- 'ini- 'movement toward'
- 'ini- 'cross'
- 'ini- 'consume'
- 'ini-Ca- '(one)self' (reflexive)
- 'ini- ... -ae 'pretend'
- 'ini- ... (-ae) 'behave like, look like' (derived from'inilrao 'resemble')
- 'ira- 'for' (derived from 'iraki'(do) for')
- 'o- 'take off'
- 'o- ... -le/-lo 'a number of times' (attaches to bound numerals)
- 'o- ... -le/-lo 'measure' (must be followed by certain words to indicate a measure with the hand, foot, ruler, etc.)
- 'o-tali 'unpack'
下列霧台魯凱語詞綴參考自(Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995)。
- 名詞詞綴
- ka- ... -an? + N 'something real or genuine
- ko- + Pronoun 'nominative'
- moasaka- + N (numeral) 'ordinal'
- sa- ... an? + V 'instrument, tool'
- sa- + N 'some body parts'
- ta- ... -an? + N 'location, time'
- ta-ra + N 'agentive, a person specialised in...'
- 動詞詞綴
- -a- + V 'realis'
- -a + V 'imperative'
- ki- + N 'to gather, to collect, to harvest'
- ki- + V 'dative-focus, involuntary action'
- ko- + N 'to remove, to peel'
- ko- + V 'intransitive, patient-focus'
- ma- + V 'mutual, reciprocal'
- maa- + V 'stative'
- mo- + N 'to discharge, remove'
- mo- + V '(to go) self-motion, non-causative'
- ?i- + V 'to act or to move in a certain direction or manner'
- ?o- + N 'to ride'
- pa- + V 'causative'
- si- + V (bound stem) 'verbal prefix'
- si- + N 'to wear, to carry, to possess'
- so- + N 'to spit, to clean, to give out'
- to- + N 'to make, produce, bring forth'
- θi + N 'to release'
- w- + V 'agent-focus, verbal prefix'
構詞
基本上萬山魯凱語音節採用一種基本的(C)V 構詞,通常詞構有2到4個音節(Zeitoun 2007)。有4種構詞程式。下列重複範式是產生在霧台魯凱語裡(Austronesian Comparative Dictionary):
- 重複名詞語根
- N + RED '大量'
- N(數詞、或時段) + RED '延長一陣子...'
- 重複動詞語根
- V + RED '繼續,繼續做,重複做'
- V + RED '未來式'
- V (靜態詞) + RED '強烈,比較大'
在霧台魯凱語裡,附著式的語根重複能夠被用來產生若干基本的名詞及動詞,比如:'打雷'、'山' ,以及 '刮擦' 。
功能詞
下列萬山魯凱語功能詞來自齊莎莉(Zeitoun (2007)。- la – 和、與
- mani – 然後、接著
代詞
參見:南島語系人稱代詞魯凱語代詞有人稱代詞,指示代詞等。且人稱代詞也兼具有格位標記之功能。台灣南島語除鄒語及巴宰語等之外,絕大多數無第3人稱(單複數)主格附著格式。 下列代名詞表來自齊莎莉(Zeitoun 1997)。 要注意的是萬山魯凱語經常使用附著式。
萬山魯凱語
人稱代名詞形式 | 主題格 | 主格 | 斜格 | 屬格 |
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第1人稱單數 | i?a? | -?ao, nao- | -i-a-? | -li |
第2人稱單數 | imia?? | -mo?o | i-mia?-? | -?o |
第3人稱單數(視界) | ana | – | -i-n-? | -(n)i |
第3人稱單數(非視界) | ?ona | – | -i-?-? | -?a |
第1人稱複數(包括式) | imit?, ita | -mita, -ta | -i-mit-? | -ta |
第1人稱複數(排除式) | inam? | -nai | -i-nam-? | -nai |
第2人稱複數 | inom? | -nomi | -i-nom-? | -nomi |
第3人稱複數(視界) | ana-lo | – | -i-l-i-n-? | -l-i-ni |
第3人稱複數(非視界) | ?ona-lo | – | -i-l-i-?-? | -l-i-?a |
霧台魯凱語
人稱代名詞形式 | 主題格 | 主格 | 斜格 | 屬格 |
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第1人稱單數 | kunaku | -(n)aku, naw- | nakuan? | -li |
第2人稱單數 | kusu | -su | musuan? | -su |
第3人稱單數(視界) | kuini | – | inian? | -ini |
第3人稱單數(非視界) | kui?a | – | – | – |
第1人稱複數(包括式) | kuta | -ta | mitaan? | -ta |
第1人稱複數(排除式) | kunai | -nai | naian? | -nai |
第2人稱單數 | kunumi | -numi, -nu | numian? | -numi |
第3人稱複數(視界) | kuini | – | inian? | -ini |
第3人稱複數(非視界) | kui?a | – | – | – |
馬加魯凱語
人稱代名詞形式 | 主題格 | 主格 | 斜格 | 屬格 |
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第1稱單數 | i k?k? | ku-, k?k? | ?kua | -li |
第2人稱單數 | i musu | su-, musu | sua | -su |
第3人稱單數(視界) | i kini | kini | nia | -ini |
第3人稱單數(非視界) | i ki?i | ki?i | ?ia | -?a |
第1人稱複數(包括式) | i miti | ta-, miti | mitia | -ta |
第1人稱複數(排除式) | i knam? | nam?-, knam? | nmaa | -nam? |
第2人稱複數 | i mumu | mu-, mumu | mua | -mu |
第3人稱複數(視界) | i kini | kini | nia | -ini |
第3人稱複數(非視界) | i ki?i | ki?i | ?ia | -?a |
動詞
下列為萬山魯凱語的動詞詞綴來自齊莎莉(Zeitoun 2007)。- 動態動詞:o-;較稀少的表示為 om- and m-
- 靜態動詞:ma-
- 否定前綴:ki-
- 使役式:pa-
- ?ini-Ca- "(一個人)自身"
- mati- "好的…"
- k-in-a ... a? "…較多"
- ?ako- "勉強地,僅僅"
- ka- "事實上"
- mata ... a? "確切地"
句法
不像大多數其它台灣南島語言,魯凱語為主賓格語言(accusative language/對格語言)、而不是典型的南島語配列之作格語言形式 (Zeitoun 2007)。魯凱語也是台灣南島語裡唯一“沒有焦點系統”的語言。 於語言的演進上、如果沒有焦點(focus)則往往會往“主賓格語言(AS-O)”的方向發展,不過有時“對格語言”也會含有“部份作格性(A-SO)”的現象或則反之亦然。總結在萬山魯凱語有兩種句型:補語化採用4種策略(Zeitoun 2007):
限定受詞在主動及被動句子裡均可作主題。