中華人民共和國民法通則(附英文)
●全國人大 1986年4月12日頒布 1987年1月1日實施
●主席令第三十七號 時效性:有效
（一九八六年四月十二日第六屆全國人民代表大會第四次會議通過）
中華人民共和國主席令第三十七號
《中華人民共和國民法通則》已由中華人民共和國第六屆全國人民代表大會第四次會議於一九八六年四月十二日通過，現予公布，自一九八七年一月一日起施行。
中華人民共和國主席 李先念
一九八六年四月十二日
目 錄
第一章 基本原則
第二章 公民（自然人）
第一節 民事權利能力和民事行為能力
第二節 監護
第三節 宣告失蹤和宣告死亡
第四節 個體工商戶、農村承包經營戶
第五節 個人合夥
第三章 法人
第一節 一般規定
第二節 企業法人
第三節 機關、事業單位和社會團體法人
第四節 聯營
第四章 民事法律行為和代理
第一節 民事法律行為
第二節 代理
第五章 民事權利
第一節 財產所有權和與財產所有權財產權
第二節 債權
第三節 智慧財產權
第四節 人身權
第六章 民事責任
第一節 一般規定
第二節 違反契約的民事責任
第三節 侵權的民事責任
第四節 承擔民事責任的方式
第七章 訴訟時效
第八章 涉外民事關係的法律適用
第九章 附則
第一章 基本原則
第一條 為了保障公民、法人的合法的民事權益，正確調整民事關係，適應社會主義現代化建設事業發展的需要，根據憲法和我國實際情況，總結民事活動的實踐經驗，制定本法。
第二條 中華人民共和國民法調整平等主體的公民之間、法人之間、公民和法人之間的財產關係和人身關係。
第三條 當事人在民事活動中的地位平等。
第四條 民事活動應當遵循自願、公平、等價有償、誠實信用的原則。
第五條 公民、法人的合法的民事權益受法律保護，任何組織和個人不得侵犯。
第六條 民事活動必須遵守法律，法律沒有規定的，應當遵守國家政策。
第七條 民事活動應當尊重社會公德，不得損害社會公共利益，破壞國家經濟計畫，擾亂社會經濟秩序。
第八條 在中華人民共和國領域內的民事活動，適用中華人民共和國法律，法律另有規定的除外。
本法關於公民的規定，適用於在中華人民共和國領域內的外國人、無國籍人，法律另有規定的除外。
第二章 公民（自然人）
第一節 民事權利能力和民事行為能力
第九條 公民從出生時起到死亡時止，具有民事權利能力，依法享有民事權利，承擔民事義務。
第十條 公民的民事權利能力一律平等。
第十一條 十八周歲以上的公民是成年人，具有完全民事行為能力，可以獨立進行民事活動，是完全民事行為能力人。
十六周歲以上不滿十八周歲的公民，以自己的勞動收入為主要生活來源的，視為完全民事行為能力人。
第十二條 十周歲以上的未成年人是限制民事行為能力人，可以進行與他的年齡、智力相適應的民事活動；其他民事活動由他的法定代理人代理，或者徵得他的法定代理人的同意。
不滿十周歲的未成年人是無民事行為能力人，由他的法定代理人代理民事活動。
第十三條 不能辨認自己行為的精神病人是無民事行為能力人，由他的法定代理人代理民事活動。
不能完全辨認自己行為的精神病人是限制民事行為能力人，可以進行與他的精神健康狀況相適應的民事活動；其他民事活動由他的法定代理人代理，或者徵得他的法定代理人的同意。
第十四條 無民事行為能力人、限制民事行為能力人的監護人是他的法定代理人。
第十五條 公民以他的戶籍所在地的居住地為住所，經常居住地與住所不一致的，經常居住地視為住所。
第二節 監 護
第十六條 未成年人的父母是未成年人的監護人。
未成年人的父母已經死亡或者沒有監護能力的，由下列人員中有監護能力的人擔任監護人：
（一）祖父母、外祖父母；
（二）兄、姐；
（三）關係密切的其他親屬、朋友願意承擔監護責任，經未成年人的父、母的所在單位或者未成年人住所地的居民委員會、村民委員會同意的。
對擔任監護人有爭議的，由未成年人的父、母的所在單位或者未成年人住所地的居民委員會、村民委員會在近親屬中指定。對指定不服提起訴訟的，由人民法院裁決。
沒有第一款、第二款規定的監護人的，由未成年人的父、母的所在單位或者未成年人住所地的居民委員會、村民委員會或者民政部門擔任監護人。
第十七條 無民事行為能力或者限制民事行為能力的精神病人，由下列人員擔任監護人：
（一）配偶；
（二）父母；
（三）成年子女；
（四）其他近親屬；
（五）關係密切的其他親屬、朋友願意承擔監護責任，經精神病人的所在單位或者住所地的居民委員會、村民委員會同意的。
對擔任監護人有爭議的，由精神病人的所在單位或者住所地的居民委員會、村民委員會在近親屬中指定。對指定不服提起訴訟的，由人民法院裁決。
沒有第一款規定的監護人的，由精神病人的所在單位或者住所地的居民委員會、村民委員會或者民政部門擔任監護人。
第十八條 監護人應當履行監護職責，保護被監護人的人身、財產及其他合法權益，除為被監護人的利益外，不得處理被監護人的財產。
監護人依法履行監護的權利，受法律保護。
監護人不履行監護職責或者侵害被監護人的合法權益的，應當承擔責任；給被監護人造成財產損失的，應當賠償損失。人民法院可以根據有關人員或者有關單位的申請，撤銷監護人的資格。
第十九條 精神病人的利害關係人，可以向人民法院申請宣告精神病人為無民事行為能力人或者限制民事行為能力人。
被人民法院宣告為無民事行為能力人或者限制民事行為能力人的，根據他健康恢復的狀況，經本人或者利害關係人申請，人民法院可以宣告他為限制民事行為能力人或者完全民事行為能力人。
第三節 宣告失蹤和宣告死亡
第二十條 公民下落不明滿二年的，利害關係人可以向人民法院申請宣告他為失蹤人。
戰爭期間下落不明的，下落不明的時間從戰爭結束之日起計算。
第二十一條 失蹤人的財產由他的配偶、父母、成年子女或者關係密切的其他親屬、朋友代管。代管有爭議的，沒有以上規定的人或者以上規定的人無能力代管的，由人民法院指定的人代管。
失蹤人所欠稅款、債務和應付的其他費用，由代管人從失蹤人的財產中支付。
第二十二條 被宣告失蹤的人重新出現或者確知他的下落，經本人或者利害關係人申請，人民法院應當撤銷對他的失蹤宣告。
第二十三條 公民有下列情形之一的，利害關係人可以向人民法院申請宣告他死亡：
（一）下落不明滿四年的；
（二）因意外事故下落不明，從事故發生之日起滿二年的。
戰爭期間下落不明的，下落不明的時間從戰爭結束之日起計算。
第二十四條 被宣告死亡的人重新出現或者確知他沒有死亡，經本人或者利害關係人申請，人民法院應當撤銷對他的死亡宣告。
有民事行為能力人在被宣告死亡期間實施的民事法律行為有效。
第二十五條 被撤銷死亡宣告的人有權請求返還財產。依照繼承法取得他的財產的公民或者組織，應當返還原物；原物不存在的，給予適當補償。
第四節 個體工商戶、農村承包經營戶
第二十六條 公民在法律允許的範圍內，依法經核准登記，從事工商業經營的，為個體工商戶。個體工商戶可以起字號。
第二十七條 農村集體經濟組織的成員，在法律允許的範圍內，按照承包契約規定從事商品經營的，為農村承包經營戶。
第二十八條 個體工商戶、農村承包經營戶的合法權益，受法律保護。
第二十九條 個體工商戶、農村承包經營戶的債務，個人經營的，以個人財產承擔；家庭經營的，以家庭財產承擔。
第五節 個人合夥
第三十條 個人合夥是指兩個以上公民按照協定，各自提供資金、實物、技術等，合夥經營、共同勞動。
第三十一條 合伙人應當對出資數額、盈餘分配、債務承擔、入伙、退夥、合夥終止等事項，訂立書面協定。
第三十二條 合伙人投入的財產，由合伙人統一管理和使用。
合夥經營積累的財產，歸合伙人共有。
第三十三條 個人合夥可以起字號，依法經核准登記，在核准登記的經營範圍內從事經營。
第三十四條 個人合夥的經營活動，由合伙人共同決定，合伙人有執行和監督的權利。
合伙人可以推舉負責人。合夥負責人和其他人員的經營活動，由全體合伙人承擔民事責任。
第三十五條 合夥的債務，由合伙人按照出資比例或者協定的約定，以各自的財產承擔清償責任。
合伙人對合夥的債務承擔連帶責任，法律另有規定的除外。償還合夥債務超過自己應當承擔數額的合伙人，有權向其他合伙人追償。
第三章 法 人
第一節 一般規定
第三十六條 法人是具有民事權利能力和民事行為能力，依法獨立享有民事權利和承擔民事義務的組織。
法人的民事權利能力和民事行為能力，從法人成立時產生，到法人終止時消滅。
第三十七條 法人應當具備下列條件：
（一）依法成立；
（二）有必要的財產或者經費；
（三）有自己的名稱、組織機構和場所；
（四）能夠獨立承擔民事責任。
第三十八條 依照法律或者法人組織章程規定，代表法人行使職權的負責人，是法人的法定代表人。
第三十九條 法人以它的主要辦事機構所在地為住所。
第四十條 法人終止，應當依法進行清算，停止清算範圍外的活動。
第二節 企業法人
第四十一條 全民所有制企業、集體所有制企業有符合國家規定的資金數額，有組織章程、組織機構和場所，能夠獨立承擔民事責任，經主管機關核准登記，取得法人資格。
在中華人民共和國領域內設立的中外合資經營企業、中外合作經營企業和外資企業，具備法人條件的，依法經工商行政管理機關核准登記，取得中國法人資格。
第四十二條 企業法人應當在核准登記的經營範圍內從事經營。
第四十三條 企業法人對它的法定代表人和其他工作人員的經營活動，承擔民事責任。
第四十四條 企業法人分立、合併或者有其他重要事項變更，應當向登記機關辦理登記並公告。
企業法人分立、合併，它的權利和義務由變更後的法人享有和承擔。
第四十五條 企業法人由於下列原因之一終止：
（一）依法被撤銷；
（二）解散；
（三）依法宣告破產；
（四）其他原因。
第四十六條 企業法人終止，應當向登記機關辦理註銷登記並公告。
第四十七條 企業法人解散，應當成立清算組織，進行清算。企業法人被撤銷、被宣告破產的，應當由主管機關或者人民法院組織有關機關和有關人員成立清算組織，進行清算。
第四十八條 全民所有制企業法人以國家授予它經營管理的財產承擔民事責任。集體所有制企業法人以企業所有的財產承擔民事責任。中外合資經營企業法人、中外合作經營企業法人和外資企業法人以企業所有的財產承擔民事責任，法律另有規定的除外。
第四十九條 企業法人有下列情形之一的，除法人承擔責任外，對法定代表人可以給予行政處分、罰款，構成犯罪的，依法追究刑事責任：
（一）超出登記機關核准登記的經營範圍從事非法經營的；
（二）向登記機關、稅務機關隱瞞真實情況、弄虛作假的；
（三）抽逃資金、隱匿財產逃避債務的；
（四）解散、被撤銷、被宣告破產後，擅自處理財產的；
（五）變更、終止時不及時申請辦理登記和公告，使利害關係人遭受重大損失的；
（六）從事法律禁止的其他活動，損害國家利益或者社會公共利益的。
第三節 機關、事業單位和社會團體法人
第五十條 有獨立經費的機關從成立之日起，具有法人資格。
具備法人條件的事業單位、社會團體，依法不需要辦理法人登記的，從成立之日起，具有法人資格；依法需要辦理法人登記的，經核准登記，取得法人資格。
第四節 聯 營
第五十一條 企業之間或者企業、事業單位之間聯營，組成新的經濟實體，獨立承擔民事責任、具備法人條件的，經主管機關核准登記，取得法人資格。
第五十二條 企業之間或者企業、事業單位之間聯營，共同經營、不具備法人條件的，由聯營各方按照出資比例或者協定的約定，以各自所有的或者經營管理的財產承擔民事責任。依照法律的規定或者協定的約定負連帶責任的，承擔連帶責任。
第五十三條 企業之間或者企業、事業單位之間聯營，按照契約的約定各自獨立經營的，它的權利和義務由契約約定，各自承擔民事責任。
第四章 民事法律行為和代理
第一節 民事法律行為
第五十四條 民事法律行為是公民或者法人設立、變更、終止民事權利和民事義務的合法行為。
第五十五條 民事法律行為應當具備下列條件：
（一）行為人具有相應的民事行為能力；
（二）意思表示真實；
（三）不違反法律或者社會公共利益。
第五十六條 民事法律行為可以採取書面形式、口頭形式或者其他形式。法律規定是特定形式的，應當依照法律規定。
第五十七條 民事法律行為從成立時起具有法律約束力。行為人非依法律規定或者取得對方同意，不得擅自變更或者解除。
第五十八條 下列民事行為無效：
（一）無民事行為能力人實施的；
（二）限制民事行為能力人依法不能獨立實施的；
（三）一方以欺詐、脅迫的手段或者乘人之危，使對方在違背真實意思的情況下所為的；
（四）惡意串通，損害國家、集體或者第三人利益的；
（五）違反法律或者社會公共利益的；
（六）經濟契約違反國家指令性計畫的；
（七）以合法形式掩蓋非法目的的。
無效的民事行為，從行為開始起就沒有法律約束力。
第五十九條 下列民事行為，一方有權請求人民法院或者仲裁機關予以變更或者撤銷：
（一）行為人對行為內容有重大誤解的；
（二）顯失公平的。
被撤銷的民事行為從行為開始起無效。
第六十條 民事行為部分無效，不影響其他部分的效力的，其他部分仍然有效。
第六十一條 民事行為被確認為無效或者被撤銷後，當事人因該行為取得的財產，應當返還給受損失的一方。有過錯的一方應當賠償對方因此所受的損失，對方都有過錯的，應當各自承擔相應的責任。
雙方惡意串通，實施民事行為損害國家的、集體的或者第三人的利益的，應當追繳雙方取得的財產，收歸國家、集體所有或者返還第三人。
第六十二條 民事法律行為可以附條件，附條件的民事法律行為在符合所附條件時生效。
第二節 代理
第六十三條 公民、法人可以通過代理人實施民事法律行為。
代理人在代理許可權內，以被代理人的名義實施民事法律行為。被代理人對代理人的代理行為，承擔民事責任。
依照法律規定或者按照雙方當事人約定，應當由本人實施的民事法律行為，不得代理。
第六十四條 代理包括委託代理、法定代理和指定代理。
委託代理人按照被代理人的委託行使代理權，法定代理人依照法律的規定行使代理權，指定代理人按照人民法院或者指定單位的指定行使代理權。
第六十五條 民事法律行為的委託代理，可以用書面形式，也可以用口頭形式。法律規定用書面形式的，應當用書面形式。
書面委託代理的授權委託書應當載明代理人的姓名或者名稱、代理事項、許可權和期間，並由委託人簽名或者蓋章。
委託書授權不明的，被代理人應當向第三人承擔民事責任，代理人負連帶責任。
第六十六條 沒有代理權、超越代理權或者代理權終止後的行為，只有經過被代理人的追認，被代理人才承擔民事責任。未經追認的行為，由行為人承擔民事責任。本人知道他人以本人名義實施民事行為而不作否認表示的，視為同意。
代理人不履行職責而給被代理人造成損害的，應當承擔民事責任。
代理人和第三人串通，損害被代理人的利益的，由代理人和第三人負連帶責任。
第三人知道行為人沒有代理權、超越代理權或者代理權已終止還與行為人實施民事行為給他人造成損害的，由第三人和行為人負連帶責任。
第六十七條 代理人知道被委託代理的事項違法仍然進行代理活動的，或者被代理人知道代理人的代理行為違法不表示反對的，由被代理人和代理人負連帶責任。
第六十八條 委託代理人為被代理人的利益需要轉託他人代理的，應當事先取得被代理人的同意。事先沒有取得被代理人同意的，應當在事後及時告訴被代理人，如果被代理人不同意，由代理人對自己所轉託的人的行為負民事責任，但在緊急情況下，為了保護被代理人的利益而轉託他人代理的除外。
第六十九條 有下列情形之一的，委託代理終止：
（一）代理期間屆滿或者代理事務完成；
（二）被代理人取消委託或者代理人辭去委託；
（三）代理人死亡；
（四）代理人喪失民事行為能力；
（五）作為被代理人或者代理人的法人終止。
第七十條 有下列情形之一的，法定代理或者指定代理終止：
（一）被代理人取得或者恢復民事行為能力；
（二）被代理人或者代理人死亡；
（三）代理人喪失民事行為能力；
（四）指定代理的人民法院或者指定單位取消指定；
（五）由其他原因引起的被代理人和代理人之間的監護關係消滅。
第五章 民事
第一節 財產所有權和與財產所有權有關的財產權
第七十一條 財產所有權是指所有人依法對自己的財產享有占有、使用、收益和處分的權利。
第七十二條 財產所有權的取得，不得違反法律規定。
按照契約或者其他合法方式取得財產的，財產所有權從財產交付時起轉移，法律另有規定或者當事人另有約定的除外。
第七十三條 國家財產屬於全民所有。
國家財產神聖不可侵犯，禁止任何組織或者個人侵占、哄搶、私分、截留、破壞。
第七十四條 勞動民眾集體組織的財產屬於勞動民眾集體所有，包括：
（一）法律規定為集體所有的土地和森林、山嶺、草原、荒地、灘涂等；
（二）集體經濟組織的財產；
（三）集體所有的建築物、水庫、農田水利設施和教育、科學、文化、衛生、體育等設施；
（四）集體所有的其他財產。
集體所有的土地依照法律屬於村農民集體所有，由村農業生產合作社等農業集體經濟組織或者村民委員會經營、管理。已經屬於鄉（鎮）農民集體經濟組織所有的，可以屬於鄉（鎮）農民集體所有。
集體所有的財產受法律保護，禁止任何組織或者個人侵占、哄搶、私分、破壞或者非法查封、扣押、凍結、沒收。
第七十五條 公民的個人財產，包括公民的合法收入、房屋、儲蓄、生活用品、文物、圖書資料、林木、牲畜和法律允許公民所有的生產資料以及其他合法財產。
公民的合法財產受法律保護，禁止任何組織或者個人侵占、哄搶、破壞或者非法查封、扣押、凍結、沒收。
第七十六條 公民依法享有財產繼承權。
第七十七條 社會團體包括宗教團體的合法財產受法律保護。
第七十八條 財產可以由兩個以上的公民、法人共有。
共有分為按份共有和共同共有。按份共有人按照各自的份額，對共有財產分享權利，分擔義務。共同共有人對共有財產享有權利，承擔義務。
按份共有財產的每個共有人有權要求將自己的份額分出或者轉讓。但在出售時，其他共有人在同等條件下，有優先購買的權利。
第七十九條 所有人不明的埋藏物、隱藏物，歸國家所有。接收單位應當對上繳的單位或者個人，給予表揚或者物質獎勵。
拾得遺失物、漂流物或者失散的飼養動物，應當歸還失主，因此而支出的費用由失主償還。
第八十條 國家所有的土地，可以依法由全民所有制單位使用，也可以依法確定由集體所有制單位使用，國家保護它的使用、收益的權利；使用單位有管理、保護、合理利用的義務。
公民、集體依法對集體所有的或者國家所有由集體使用的土地的承包經營權，受法律保護。承包雙方的權利和義務，依照法律由承包契約規定。
土地不得買賣、出租、抵押或者以其他形式非法轉讓。
第八十一條 國家所有的森林、山嶺、草原、荒地、灘涂、水面等自然資源，可以依法由全民所有制單位使用，也可以依法確定由集體所有制單位使用，國家保護它的使用、收益的權利；使用單位有管理、保護、合理利用的義務。
國家所有的礦藏，可以依法由全民所有制單位和集體所有制單位開採，也可以依法由公民採挖。國家保護合法的採礦權。
公民、集體依法對集體所有的或者國家所有由集體使用的森林、山嶺、草原、荒地、灘涂、水面的承包經營權，受法律保護。承包雙方的權利和義務，依照法律由承包契約規定。
國家所有的礦藏、水流，國家所有的和法律規定屬於集體所有的林地、山嶺、草原、荒地、灘涂不得買賣、出租、抵押或者以其他形式非法轉讓。
第八十二條 全民所有制企業對國家授予它經營管理的財產依法享有經營權，受法律保護。
第八十三條 不動產的相鄰各方，應當按照有利生產、方便生活、團結互助、公平合理的精神，正確處理截水、排水、通行、通風、採光等方面的相鄰關係。給相鄰方造成妨礙或者損失的，應當停止侵害，排除妨礙，賠償損失。
第二節 債 權
第八十四條 債是按照契約的約定或者依照法律的規定，在當事人之間產生的特定的權利和義務關係，享有權利的人是債權人，負有義務的人是債務人。
債權人有權要求債務人按照契約的約定或者依照法律的規定履行義務。
第八十五條 契約是當事人之間設立、變更、終止民事關係的協定。依法成立的契約，受法律保護。
第八十六條 債權人為二人以上的，按照確定的份額分享權利。債務人為二人以上的，按照確定的份額分擔義務。
第八十七條 債權人或者債務人一方人數為二人以上的，依照法律的規定或者當事人的約定，享有連帶權利的每個債權人，都有權要求債務人履行義務；負有連帶義務的每個債務人，都負有清償全部債務的義務，履行了義務的人，有權要求其他負有連帶義務的人償付他應當承擔的份額。
第八十八條 契約的當事人應當按照契約的約定，全部履行自己的義務。
契約中有關質量、期限、地點或者價款約定不明確，按照契約有關條款內容不能確定，當事人又不能通過協商達成協定的，適用下列規定：
（一）質量要求不明確的，按照國家質量標準履行，沒有國家質量標準的，按照通常標準履行。
（二）履行期限不明確的，債務人可以隨時向債權人履行義務，債權人也可以隨時要求債務人履行義務，但應當給對方必要的準備時間。
（三）履行地點不明確，給付貨幣的，在接受給付一方的所在地履行，其他標的在履行義務一方的所在地履行。
（四）價款約定不明確的，按照國家規定的價格履行；沒有國家規定價格的，參照市場價格或者同類物品的價格或者同類勞務的報酬標準履行。
契約對專利申請權沒有約定的，完成發明創造的當事人享有申請權。
契約對科技成果的使用權沒有約定的，當事人都有使用的權利。
第八十九條 依照法律的規定或者按照當事人的約定，可以採用下列方式擔保債務的履行：
（一）保證人向債權人保證債務人履行債務，債務人不履行債務的，按照約定由保證人履行或者承擔連帶責任；保證人履行債務後，有權向債務人追償。
（二）債務人或者第三人可以提供一定的財產作為抵押物。債務人不履行債務的，債權人有權依照法律的規定以抵押物折價或者以變賣抵押物的價款優先得到償還。
（三）當事人一方在法律規定的範圍內可以向對方給付定金。債務人履行債務後，定金應當抵作價款或者收回。給付定金的一方不履行債務的，無權要求返還定金；接受定金的一方不履行債務的，應當雙倍返還定金。
（四）按照契約約定一方占有對方的財產，對方不按照契約給付應付款項超過約定期限的，占有人有權留置該財產，依照法律的規定以留置財產折價或者以變賣該財產的價款優先得到償還。
第九十條 合法的借貸關係受法律保護。
第九十一條 契約一方將契約的權利、義務全部或者部分轉讓給第三人的，應當取得契約另一方的同意，並不得牟利。依照法律規定應當由國家批准的契約，需經原批准機關批准。但是，法律另有規定或者原契約另有約定的除外。
第九十二條 沒有合法根據，取得不當利益，造成他人損失的，應當將取得的不當利益返還受損失的人。
第九十三條 沒有法定的或者約定的義務，為避免他人利益受損失進行管理或者服務的，有權要求受益人償付由此而支付的必要費用。
第三節 智慧財產權
第九十四條 公民、法人享有著作權（著作權），依法有署名、發表、出版、獲得報酬等權利。
第九十五條 公民、法人依法取得的專利權受法律保護。
第九十六條 法人、個體工商戶、個人合夥依法取得的商標專用權受法律保護。
第九十七條 公民對自己的發現享有發現權。發現人有權申請領取發現證書、獎金或者其他獎勵。
公民對自己的發明或者其他科技成果，有權申請領取榮譽證書、獎金或者其他獎勵。
第四節 人 身 權
第九十八條 公民享有生命健康權。
第九十九條 公民享有姓名權，有權決定、使用和依照規定改變自己的姓名，禁止他人干涉、盜用、假冒。
法人、個體工商戶、個人合夥享有名稱權。企業法人、個體工商戶、個人合夥有權使用、依法轉讓自己的名稱。
第一百條 公民享有肖像權，未經本人同意，不得以營利為目的使用公民的肖像。
第一百零一條 公民、法人享有名譽權，公民的人格尊嚴受法律保護，禁止用侮辱、誹謗等方式損害公民、法人的名譽。
第一百零二條 公民、法人享有榮譽權，禁止非法剝奪公民、法人的榮譽稱號。
第一百零三條 公民享有婚姻自主權，禁止買賣、包辦婚姻和其他干涉婚姻自由的行為。
第一百零四條 婚姻、家庭、老人、母親和兒童受法律保護。
殘疾人的合法權益受法律保護。
第一百零五條 婦女享有同男子平等的民事權利。
第六章 民事責任
第一節 一般規定
第一百零六條 公民、法人違反契約或者不履行其他義務的，應當承擔民事責任。
公民、法人由於過錯侵害國家的、集體的財產，侵害他人財產、人身的，應當承擔民事責任。
沒有過錯，但法律規定應當承擔民事責任的，應當承擔民事責任。
第一百零七條 因不可抗力不能履行契約或者造成他人損害的，不承擔民事責任，法律另有規定的除外。
第一百零八條 債務應當清償。暫時無力償還的，經債權人同意或者人民法院裁決，可以由債務人分期償還。有能力償還拒不償還的，由人民法院判決強制償還。
第一百零九條 因防止、制止國家的、集體的財產或者他人的財產、人身遭受侵害而使自己受到損害的，由侵害人承擔賠償責任，受益人也可以給予適當的補償。
第一百一十條 對承擔民事責任的公民、法人需要追究行政責任的，應當追究行政責任；構成犯罪的，對公民、法人的法定代表人應當依法追究刑事責任。
第二節 違反契約的民事責任
第一百一十一條 當事人一方不履行契約義務或者履行契約義務不符契約定條件的，另一方有權要求履行或者採取補救措施，並有權要求賠償損失。
第一百一十二條 當事人一方違反契約的賠償責任，應當相當於另一方因此所受到的損失。
當事人可以在契約中約定，一方違反契約時，向另一方支付一定數額的違約金；也可以在契約中約定對於違反契約而產生的損失賠償額的計算方法。
第一百一十三條 當事人雙方都違反契約的，應當分別承擔各自應負的民事責任。
第一百一十四條 當事人一方因另一方違反契約受到損失的，應當及時採取措施防止損失的擴大；沒有及時採取措施致使損失擴大的，無權就擴大的損失要求賠償。
第一百一十五條 契約的變更或者解除，不影響當事人要求賠償損失的權利。
第一百一十六條 當事人一方由於上級機關的原因，不能履行契約義務的，應當按照契約約定向另一方賠償損失或者採取其他補救措施，再由上級機關對它因此受到的損失負責處理。
第三節 侵權的民事責任
第一百一十七條 侵占國家的、集體的財產或者他人財產的，應當返還財產，不能返還財產的，應當折價賠償。
損壞國家的、集體的財產或者他人財產的，應當恢復原狀或者折價賠償。
受害人因此遭受其他重大損失的，侵害人並應當賠償損失。
第一百一十八條 公民、法人的著作權（著作權）、專利權、商標專用權、發現權、發明權和其他科技成果權受到剽竊、篡改、假冒等侵害的，有權要求停止侵害，消除影響，賠償損失。
第一百一十九條 侵害公民身體造成傷害的，應當賠償醫療費、因誤工減少的收入、殘廢者生活補助費等費用；造成死亡的，並應當支付喪葬費、死者生前扶養的人必要的生活費等費用。
第一百二十條 公民的姓名權、肖像權、名譽權、榮譽權受到侵害的，有權要求停止侵害，恢復名譽，消除影響，賠禮道歉，並可以要求賠償損失。
法人的名稱權、名譽權、榮譽權受到侵害的，適用前款規定。
第一百二十一條 國家機關或者國家機關工作人員在執行職務中，侵犯公民、法人的合法權益造成損害的，應當承擔民事責任。
第一百二十二條 因產品質量不合格造成他人財產、人身損害的，產品製造者、銷售者應當依法承擔民事責任。運輸者、倉儲者對此負有責任的，產品製造者、銷售者有權要求賠償損失。
第一百二十三條 從事高空、高壓、易燃、易爆、劇毒、放射性、高速運輸工具等對周圍環境有高度危險的作業造成他人損害的，應當承擔民事責任；如果能夠證明損害是由受害人故意造成的，不承擔民事責任。
第一百二十四條 違反國家保護環境防止污染的規定，污染環境造成他人損害的，應當依法承擔民事責任。
第一百二十五條 在公共場所、道旁或者通道上挖坑、修繕安裝地下設施等，沒有設定明顯標誌和採取安全措施造成他人損害的，施工人應當承擔民事責任。
第一百二十六條 建築物或者其他設施以及建築物上的擱置物、懸掛物發生倒塌、脫落、墜落造成他人損害的，它的所有人或者管理人應當承擔民事責任，但能夠證明自己沒有過錯的除外。
第一百二十七條 飼養的動物造成他人損害的，動物飼養人或者管理人應當承擔民事責任；由於受害人的過錯造成損害的，動物飼養人或者管理人不承擔民事責任；由於第三人的過錯造成損害的，第三人應當承擔民事責任。
第一百二十八條 因正當防衛造成損害的，不承擔民事責任。正當防衛超過必要的限度，造成不應有的損害的，應當承擔適當的民事責任。
第一百二十九條 因緊急避險造成損害的，由引起險情發生的人承擔民事責任。如果危險是由自然原因引起的，緊急避險人不承擔民事責任或者承擔適當的民事責任。因緊急避險採取措施不當或者超過必要的限度，造成不應有的損害的，緊急避險人應當承擔適當的民事責任。
第一百三十條 二人以上共同侵權造成他人損害的，應當承擔連帶責任。
第一百三十一條 受害人對於損害的發生也有過錯的，可以減輕侵害人的民事責任。
第一百三十二條 當事人對造成損害都沒有過錯的，可以根據實際情況，由當事人分擔民事責任。
第一百三十三條 無民事行為能力人、限制民事行為能力人造成他人損害的，由監護人承擔民事責任。監護人盡了監護責任的，可以適當減輕他的民事責任。
有財產的無民事行為能力人、限制民事行為能力人造成他人損害的，從本人財產中支付賠償費用。不足部分，由監護人適當賠償，但單位擔任監護人的除外。
第六章 民事責任
第四節承擔民事責任的方式
第一百三十四條 承擔民事責任的方式主要有：
（一）停止侵害；
（二）排除妨礙；
（三）消除危險；
（四）返還財產；
（五）恢復原狀；
（六）修理、重作、更換；
（七）賠償損失；
（八）支付違約金；
（九）消除影響、恢復名譽；
（十）賠禮道歉。
以上承擔民事責任的方式，可以單獨適用，也可以合併適用。
人民法院審理民事案件，除適用上述規定外，還可以予以訓誡、責令具結悔過、收繳進行非法活動的財物和非法所得，並可以依照法律規定處以罰款、拘留。
第七章 訴訟時效
第一百三十五條 向人民法院請求保護民事權利的訴訟時效期間為二年，法律另有規定的除外。
第一百三十六條 下列的訴訟時效期間為一年：
（一）身體受到傷害要求賠償的；
（二）出售質量不合格的商品未聲明的；
（三）延付或者拒付租金的；
（四）暫存財物被丟失或者損毀的。
第一百三十七條 訴訟時效期間從知道或者應當知道權利被侵害時起計算。但是，從權利被侵害之日起超過二十年的，人民法院不予保護。有特殊情況的，人民法院可以延長訴訟時效期間。
第一百三十八條 超過訴訟時效期間，當事人自願履行的，不受訴訟時效限制。
第一百三十九條 在訴訟時效期間的最後六個月內，因不可抗力或者其他障礙不能行使請求權的，訴訟時效中止。從中止時效的原因消除之日起，訴訟時效期間繼續計算。
第一百四十條 訴訟時效因提起訴訟、當事人一方提出要求或者同意履行義務而中斷。從中斷時起，訴訟時效期間重新計算。
第一百四十一條 法律對訴訟時效另有規定的，依照法律規定。
第八章 涉外民事關係的法律適用
第一百四十二條 涉外民事關係的法律適用，依照本章的規定確定。
中華人民共和國締結或者參加的國際條約同中華人民共和國的民事法律有不同規定的，適用國際條約的規定，但中華人民共和國聲明保留的條款除外。
中華人民共和國法律和中華人民共和國締結或者參加的國際條約沒有規定的，可以適用國際慣例。
第一百四十三條 中華人民共和國公民定居國外的，他的民事行為能力可以適用定居國法律。
第一百四十四條 不動產的所有權，適用不動產所在地法律。
第一百四十五條 涉外契約的當事人可以選擇處理契約爭議所適用的法律，法律另有規定的除外。
涉外契約的當事人沒有選擇的，適用與契約有最密切聯繫的國家的法律。
第一百四十六條 侵權行為的損害賠償，適用侵權行為地法律。當事人雙方國籍相同或者在同一國家有住所的，也可以適用當事人本國法律或者住所地法律。
中華人民共和國法律不認為在中華人民共和國領域外發生的行為是侵權行為的，不作為侵權行為處理。
第一百四十七條 中華人民共和國公民和外國人結婚適用婚姻締結地法律，離婚適用受理案件的法院所在地法律。
第一百四十八條 扶養適用與被扶養人有最密切聯繫的國家的法律。
第一百四十九條 遺產的法定繼承，動產適用被繼承人死亡時住所地法律，不動產適用不動產所在地法律。
第一百五十條 依照本章規定適用外國法律或者國際慣例的，不得違背中華人民共和國的社會公共利益。
第九章 附 則
第一百五十一條 民族自治地方的人民代表大會可以根據本法規定的原則，結合當地民族的特點，制定變通的或者補充的單行條例或者規定。自治區人民代表大會制定的，依照法律規定報全國人民代表大會常務委員會批准或者備案；自治州、自治縣人民代表大會制定的，報省、自治區人民代表大會常務委員會批准。
第一百五十二條 本法生效以前，經省、自治區、直轄市以上主管機關批准開辦的全民所有制企業，已經向工商行政管理機關登記的，可以不再辦理法人登記，即具有法人資格。
第一百五十三條 本法所稱的“不可抗力”，是指不能預見、不能避免並不能克服的客觀情況。
第一百五十四條 民法所稱的期間按照公曆年、月、日、小時計算。
規定按照小時計算期間的，從規定時開始計算。規定按照日、月、年計算期間的，開始的當天不算入，從下一天開始計算。
期間的最後一天是星期日或者其他法定休假日的，以休假日的次日為期間的最後一天。
期間的最後一天的截止時間為二十四點。有業務時間的，到停止業務活動的時間截止。
第一百五十五條 民法所稱的“以上”、“以下”、“以內”、“屆滿”，包括本數；所稱的“不滿”、“以外”，不包括本數。
第一百五十六條 本法自一九八七年一月一日起施行。
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OFCHINA
Important Notice: (注意事項)
英文本源自中華人民共和國務院法制局編譯, 中國法制出版社出版的《中華人民共和國涉外法規彙編》(1991年7月版).
當發生歧意時, 應以法律法規頒布單位發布的中文原文為準.
This English document is coming from "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7)
which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State
Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China
Legal System Publishing House.
In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.
Whole Document (法規全文)
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF
CHINA
(Adopted at the Fourth Session of the Sixth National People's
Congress, promulgated by Order No. 37 of the President of the People's
Republic of China on April 12, 1986, and effective as of January 1, 1987)
Contents
Chapter I Basic Principles
Chapter II Citizen (Natural Person)
Section 1 Capacity for Civil Rights and Capacity for Civil
Conduct
Section 2 Guardianship
Section 3 Declarations of Missing Persons and Death
Section 4 Individual Businesses and Leaseholding Farm
Households
Section 5 Individual Partnership
Chapter III Legal Persons
Section 1 General Stipulations
Section 2 Enterprise as Legal Person
Section 3 Official Organ, Institution and Social
Organization as Legal Persons
Section 4 Economic Association
Chapter IV Civil Juristic Acts and Agency
Section 1 Civil Juristic Acts
Section 2 Agency
Chapter V Civil Rights
Section 1 Property Ownership and Related Property Rights
Section 2 creditors' Rights
Section 3 Intellectual Property Rights
Section 4 Personal Rights
Chapter VI Civil Liability
Section 1 General Stipulations
Section 2 Civil Liability for Breach of Contract
Section 3 Civil Liability for infringement of Rights
Section 4 Methods of Bearing Civil Liability
Chapter VII Limitation of Action
Chapter VIII Application of Law in Civil Relations with Foreigners
Chapter IX Supplementary Provisions
Chapter I Basic Principles
Article 1
This Law is formulated in accordance with the Constitution and the actual
situation in our country, drawing upon our practical experience in civil
activities, for the purpose of protecting the lawful civil rights and
interests of citizens and legal persons and correctly adjusting civil
relations, so as to meet the needs of the developing socialist
modernization.
Article 2
The Civil Law of the People's Republic of China shall adjust property
relationships and personal relationships between civil subjects with equal
status, that is, between citizens, between legal persons and between
citizens and legal persons.
Article 3
Parties to a civil activity shall have equal status.
Article 4
In civil activities, the principles of voluntariness, fairness, making
compensation for equal value, honesty and credibility shall be observed.
Article 5
The lawful civil rights and interests of citizens and legal persons shall
be protected by law; no organization or individual may infringe upon them.
Article 6
Civil activities must be in compliance with the law; where there are no
relevant provisions in the law, they shall be in compliance with state
policies.
Article 7
Civil activities shall have respect for social ethics and shall not harm
the public interest, undermine state economic plans or disrupt social
economic order.
Article 8
The law of the People's Republic of China shall apply to civil activities
within the People's Republic of China, except as otherwise stipulated by
law.
The stipulations of this Law as regards citizens shall apply to foreigners
and stateless persons within the People's Republic of China, except as
otherwise stipulated by law.
Chapter II Citizen (Natural Person)
Section 1 Capacity for Civil Rights and Capacity for Civil Conduct.
Article 9
A citizen shall have the capacity for civil rights from birth to death and
shall enjoy civil rights and assume civil obligations in accordance with
the law.
Article 10
All citizens are equal as regards their capacity for civil rights.
Article 11
A citizen aged 18 or over shall be an adult. He shall have full capacity
for civil conduct, may independently engage in civil activities and shall
be called a person with full capacity for civil conduct.
A citizen who has reached the age of 16 but not the age of 18 and whose
main source of income is his own labour shall be regarded as a person with
full capacity for civil conduct.
Article 12
A minor aged 10 or over shall be a person with limited capacity for civil
conduct and may engage in civil activities appropriate to his age and
intellect; in other civil activities, he shall be represented by his agent
ad litem or participate with the consent of his agent ad litem.
A minor under the age of 10 shall be a person having no capacity for civil
conduct and shall be represented in civil activities by his agent ad
litem.
Article 13
A mentally ill person who is unable to account for his own conduct shall
be a person having no capacity for civil conduct and shall be represented
in civil activities by his agent ad litem.
A mentally ill person who is unable to fully account for his own conduct
shall be a person with limited capacity for civil conduct and may engage
in civil activities appropriate to his mental health; in other civil
activities, he shall be represented by his agent ad litem or participate
with the consent of his agent ad litem.
Article 14
The guardian of a person without or with limited capacity for civil
conduct shall be his agent ad litem.
Article 15
The domicile of a citizen shall be the place where his residence is
registered; if his habitual residence is not the same as his domicile, his
habitual residence shall be regarded as his domicile.
Section 2 Guardianship
Article 16
The parents of a minor shall be his guardians.
If the parents of a minor are dead or lack the competence to be his
guardian, a person from the following categories who has the competence to
be a guardian shall act as his guardian:
(1) paternal or maternal grandparent;
(2) elder brother or sister; or
(3) any other closely connected relative or friend willing to bear the
responsibility of guardianship and having approval from the units of the
minor's parents or from the neighbourhood or village committee in the
place of the minor's residence. In case of a dispute over guardianship,
the units of the minor's parents or the neighbourhood or village committee
in the place of his residence shall appoint a guardian from among the
minor's near relatives. If disagreement over the appointment leads to a
lawsuit, the people's court shall make a ruling.
If none of the persons listed in the first two paragraphs of this article
is available to be the guardian, the units of the minor's parents, the
neighbourhood or village committee in the place of the minor's residence
or the civil affairs department shall act as his guardian.
Article 17
A person from the following categories shall act as guardian for a
mentally ill person without or with limited capacity for civil conduct:
(1) spouse;
(2) parent;
(3) adult child;
(4) any other near relative;
(5) any other closely connected relative or friend willing to bear the
responsibility of guardianship and having approval from the unit to which
the mentally ill person belongs or from the neighbourhood or village
committee in the place of his residence. In case of a dispute over
guardianship, the unit to which the mentally ill person belongs or the
neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his residence shall
appoint a guardian from among his near relatives. If disagreement over the
appointment leads to a lawsuit, the people's court shall make a ruling.
If none of the persons listed in the first paragraph of this article is
available to be the guardian, the unit to which the mentally ill person
belongs, the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his
residence or the civil affairs department shall act as his guardian.
Article 18
A guardian shall fulfil his duty of guardianship and protect the person,
property and other lawful rights and interests of his ward. A guardian
shall not handle the property of his ward unless it is in the ward's
interests.
A guardian's rights to fulfil his guardianship in accordance with the law
shall be protected by law.
If a guardian does not fulfil his duties as guardian or infringes upon the
lawful rights and interests of his ward, he shall be held responsible; if
a guardian causes any property loss for his ward, he shall compensate for
such loss. The people's court may disqualify a guardian based on the
application of a concerned party or unit.
Article 19
A person who shares interests with a mental patient may apply to a
people's court for a declaration that the mental patient is a person
without or with limited capacity for civil conduct.
With the recovery of the health of a person who has been declared by a
people's court to be without or with limited capacity for civil conduct,
and upon his own application or that of an interested person, the people's
court may declare him to be a person with limited or full capacity for
civil conduct.
Section 3 Declarations of Missing Persons and Death
Article 20
If a citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for two years, an interested
person may apply to a people's court for a declaration of the citizen as
missing.
If a person's whereabouts become unknown during a war, the calculation of
the time period in which his whereabouts are unknown shall begin on the
final day of the war.
Article 21
A missing person's property shall be placed in the custody of his spouse,
parents, adult children or other closely connected relatives or friends.
In case of a dispute over custody, if the persons stipulated above are
unavailable or are incapable of taking such custody, the property shall be
placed in the custody of a person appointed by the people's court. Any
taxes, debts and other unpaid expenses owed by a missing person shall
defrayed by the custodian out of the missing person's property.
Article 22
In the event that a person who has been declared missing reappears or his
whereabouts are ascertained, the people's court shall, upon his own
application or that of an interested person, revoke the declaration of his
missing-person status.
Article 23
Under either of the following circumstances, an interested person may
apply to the people's court for a declaration of a citizen's death:
(1) if the citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for four years or
(2) if the citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for two years after the
date of an accident in which he was involved.
If a person's whereabouts become unknown during a war, the calculation of
the time period in which his whereabouts are unknown shall begin on the
final day of the war.
Article 24
In the event that a person who has been declared dead reappears or it is
ascertained that he is alive, the people's court shall, upon his own
application or that of an interested person, revoke the declaration of his
death.
Any civil juristic acts performed by a person with capacity for civil
conduct during the period in which he has been declared dead shall be
valid.
Article 25
A person shall have the right to request the return of his property, if
the declaration of his death has been revoked. Any citizen or organization
that has obtained such property in accordance with the Law of Succession
shall return the original items or make appropriate compensation if the
original items no longer exist.
Section 4 Individual Businesses and Leaseholding Farm Households
Article 26
"Individual businesses" refers to business run by individual citizens who
have been lawfully registered and approved to engage in industrial or
commercial operation within the sphere permitted by law. An individual
business may adopt a shop name.
Article 27
"Leaseholding farm households" refers to members of a rural collective
economic organization who engage in commodity production under a contract
and within the spheres permitted by law.
Article 28
The legitimate rights and interests of individual businesses and
leaseholding farm households shall be protected by law.
Article 29
The debts of an individual business or a leaseholding farm household shall
be secured with the individual's property if the business is operated by
an individual and with the family's property if the business is operated
by a family.
Section 5 Individual Partnership
Article 30
"Individual partnership" refers to two or more citizens associated in a
business and working together, with each providing funds, material
objects, techniques and so on according to an agreement.
Article 31
Partners shall make a written agreement covering the funds each is to
provide, the distribution of profits, the responsibility for debts, the
entering into and withdrawal from partnership, the ending of partnership
and other such matters.
Article 32
The property provided by the partners shall be under their unified
management and use. The property accumulated in a partnership operation
shall belong to all the partners.
Article 33
An individual partnership may adopt a shop name; it shall be approved and
registered in accordance with the law and conduct business operations
within the range as approved and registered.
Article 34
The operational activities of an individual partnership shall be decided
jointly by the partners, who each shall have the right to carry out and
supervise those activities. The partners may elect a responsible person.
All partners shall bear civil liability for the operational activities of
the responsible person and other personnel.
Article 35
A partnership's debts shall be secured with the partners' property in
proportion to their respective contributions to the investment or
according to the agreement made. Partners shall undertake joint liability
for their partnership's debts, except as otherwise stipulated by law. Any
partner who overpays his share of the partnership's debts shall have the
right to claim compensation from the other partners.
Chapter III Legal Persons
Section 1 General Stipulations
Article 36
A legal person shall be an organization that has capacity for civil rights
and capacity for civil conduct and independently enjoys civil rights and
assumes civil obligations in accordance with the law.
A legal person's capacity for civil rights and capacity for civil conduct
shall begin when the legal person is established and shall end when the
legal person terminates.
Article 37
A legal person shall have the following qualifications:
(1) establishment in accordance with the law;
(2) possession of the necessary property or funds;
(3) possession of its own name, organization and premises; and
(4) ability to independently bear civil liability.
Article 38
In accordance with the law or the articles of association of the legal
person, the responsible person who acts on behalf of the legal person in
exercising its functions and powers shall be its legal representative.
Article 39
A legal person's domicile shall be the place where its main administrative
office is located.
Article 40
When a legal person terminates, it shall go into liquidation in accordance
with the law and discontinue all other activities.
Section 2 Enterprise as Legal Person
Article 41
An enterprise owned by the whole people or under collective ownership
shall be qualified as a legal person when it has sufficient funds as
stipulated by the state; has articles of association, an organization and
premises; has the ability to independently bear civil liability; and has
been approved and registered by the competent authority. A Chinese-
foreign equity joint venture, Chinese-foreign contractual joint venture or
foreign-capital enterprise established within the People's Republic of
China shall be qualified as a legal person in China if it has the
qualifications of a legal person and has been approved and registered by
the administrative agency for industry and commerce in according with the
law.
Article 42
An enterprise as legal person shall conduct operations within the range
approved and registered.
Article 43
An enterprise as legal person shall bear civil liability for the
operational activities of its legal representatives and other personnel.
Article 44
If an enterprise as legal person is divided or merged or undergoes any
other important change, it shall register the change with the registration
authority and publicly announce it.
When an enterprise as legal person is divided or merged, its rights and
obligations shall be enjoyed and assumed by the new legal person that
results from the change.
Article 45
An enterprise as legal person shall terminate for any of the following
reasons:
(1) if it is dissolved by law;
(2) if it is disbanded;
(3) if it is declared bankrupt in accordance with the law; or
(4) for other reasons.
Article 46
When an enterprise as legal person terminates, it shall cancel its
registration with the registration authority and publicly announce the
termination.
Article 47
When an enterprise as legal person is disbanded, it shall establish a
liquidation organization and go into liquidation. When an enterprise as
legal person is dissolved or is declared bankrupt, the competent authority
or a people's court shall organize the organs and personnel concerned to
establish a liquidation organization to liquidate the enterprise.
Article 48
An enterprise owned by the whole people, as legal person, shall bear civil
liability with the property that the state authorizes it to manage. An
enterprise under collective ownership, as legal person, shall bear civil
liability with the property it owns. A Chinese-foreign equity joint
venture, Chinese-foreign contractual joint venture or foreign-capital
enterprise as legal person shall bear civil liability with the property it
owns, except as stipulated otherwise by law.
Article 49
Under any of the following circumstances, an enterprise as legal person
shall bear liability, its legal representative may additionally be given
administrative sanctions and fined and, if the offence constitutes a
crime, criminal responsibility shall be investigated in accordance with
the law:
(1) conducting illegal operations beyond the range approved and registered
by the registration authority;
(2) concealing facts from the registration and tax authorities and
practising fraud;
(3) secretly withdrawing funds or hiding property to evade repayment of
debts;
(4) disposing of property without authorization after the enterprise is
dissolved, disbanded or declared bankrupt;
(5) failing to apply for registration and make a public announcement
promptly when the enterprise undergoes a change or terminates, thus
causing interested persons to suffer heavy losses;
(6) engaging in other activities prohibited by law, damaging the interests
of the state or the public interest.
Section 3 Official Organ, Institution and Social Organization as Legal
Person
Article 50
An independently funded official organ shall be qualified as a legal
person on the day it is established.
If according to law an institution or social organization having the
qualifications of a legal person needs not go through the procedures for
registering as a legal person, it shall be qualified as a legal person on
the day it is established; if according to law it does need to go through
the registration procedures, it shall be qualified as a legal person after
being approved and registered.
Section 4 Economic Association
Article 51
If a new economic entity is formed by enterprises or an enterprise and an
institution that engage in economic association and it independently bears
civil liability and has the qualifications of a legal person, the new
entity shall be qualified as a legal person after being approved and
registered by the competent authority.
Article 52
If the enterprises or an enterprise and an institution that engage in
economic association conduct joint operation but do not have the
qualifications of a legal person, each party to the association shall, in
proportion to its respective contribution to the investment or according
to the agreement made, bear civil liability with the property each party
owns or manages. If joint liability is specified by law or by agreement,
the parties shall assume joint liability.
Article 53
If the contract for economic association of enterprises or of an
enterprise and an institution specifies that each party shall conduct
operations independently, it shall stipulate the rights and obligations of
each party, and each party shall bear civil liability separately.
Chapter IV Civil Juristic Acts and Agency
Section 1 Civil Juristic Acts
Article 54
A civil juristic act shall be the lawful act of a citizen or legal person
to establish, change or terminate civil rights and obligations.
Article 55
A civil juristic act shall meet the following requirements:
(1) the actor has relevant capacity for civil conduct;
(2) the intention expressed is genuine; and
(3) the act does not violate the law or the public interest.
Article 56
A civil juristic act may be in written, oral or other form. If the law
stipulates that a particular form be adopted, such stipulation shall be
observed.
Article 57
A civil juristic act shall be legally binding once it is instituted. The
actor shall not alter or rescind his act except in accordance with the law
or with the other party's consent.
Article 58
Civil acts in the following categories shall be null and void:
(1) those performed by a person without capacity for civil conduct;
(2) those that according to law may not be independently performed by a
person with limited capacity for civil conduct;
(3) those performed by a person against his true intentions as a result of
cheating, coercion or exploitation of his unfavourable position by the
other party;
(4) those that performed through malicious collusion are detrimental to
the interest of the state, a collective or a third party;
(5) those that violate the law or the public interest;
(6) economic contracts that violate the state's mandatory plans; and
(7) those that performed under the guise of legitimate acts conceal
illegitimate purposes. Civil acts that are null and void shall not be
legally binding from the very beginning.
Article 59
A party shall have the right to request a people's court or an arbitration
agency to alter or rescind the following civil acts:
(1) those performed by an actor who seriously misunderstood the contents
of the acts;
(2) those that are obviously unfair.
Rescinded civil acts shall be null and void from the very beginning.
Article 60
If part of a civil act is null and void, it shall not affect the validity
of other parts.
Article 61
After a civil act has been determined to be null and void or has been
rescinded, the party who acquired property as a result of the act shall
return it to the party who suffered a loss. The erring party shall
compensate the other party for the losses it suffered as a result of the
act; if both sides are in error, they shall each bear their proper share
of the responsibility.
If the two sides have conspired maliciously and performed a civil act that
is detrimental to the interests of the state, a collective or a third
party, the property that they thus obtained shall be recovered and turned
over to the state or the collective, or returned to the third party.
Article 62
A civil juristic act may have conditions attached to it. Conditional civil
juristic acts shall take effect when the relevant conditions are met.
Section 2 Agency
Article 63
Citizens and legal persons may perform civil juristic acts through agents
An agent shall perform civil juristic acts in the principal's name within
the scope of the power of agency. The principal shall bear civil liability
for the agent's acts of agency. Civil juristic acts that should be
performed by the principal himself, pursuant to legal provisions or the
agreement between the two parties, shall not be entrusted to an agent.
Article 64
Agency shall include entrusted agency, statutory agency and appointed
agency. An entrusted agent shall exercise the power of agency as
entrusted by the principal; a statutory agent shall exercise the power of
agency as prescribed by law; and an appointed agent shall exercise the
power of agency as designated by a people's court or the appointing unit.
Article 65
A civil juristic act may be entrusted to an agent in writing or orally. If
legal provisions require the entrustment to be written, it shall be
effected in writing. Where the entrustment of agency is in writing, the
power of attorney shall clearly state the agent's name, the entrusted
tasks and the scope and duration of the power of agency, and it shall be
signed or sealed by the principal.
If the power of attorney is not clear as to the authority conferred, the
principal shall bear civil liability towards the third party, and the
agent shall be held jointly liable.
Article 66
The principal shall bear civil liability for an act performed by an actor
with no power of agency, beyond the scope of his power of agency or after
his power of agency has expired, only if he recognizes the act
retroactively. If the act is not so recognized, the performer shall bear
civil liability for it. If a principal is aware that a civil act is being
executed in his name but fails to repudiate it, his consent shall be
deemed to have been given.
An agent shall bear civil liability if he fails to perform his duties and
thus causes damage to the principal.
If an agent and a third party in collusion harm the principal's interests,
the agent and the third party shall be held jointly liable.
If a third party is aware that an actor has no power of agency, is
overstepping his power of agency, or his power of agency has expired and
yet joins him in a civil act and thus brings damage to other people, the
third party and the actor shall be held jointly liable.
Article 67
If an agent is aware that the matters entrusted are illegal but still
carries them out, or if a principal is aware that his agent's acts are
illegal but fails to object to them, the principal and the agent shall be
held jointly liable.
Article 68
If in the principal's interests an entrusted agent needs to transfer the
agency to another person, he shall first obtain the principal's consent.
If the principal's consent is not obtained in advance, the matter shall be
reported to him promptly after the transfer, and if the principal objects,
the agent shall bear civil liability for the acts of the transferee;
however, an entrusted agency transferred in emergency circumstances in
order to safeguard the principal's interests shall be excepted.
Article 69
An entrusted agency shall end under any of the following circumstances:
(1) when the period of agency expires or when the tasks entrusted are
completed;
(2) when the principal rescinds the entrustment or the agent declines the
entrustment;
(3) when the agent dies;
(4) when the principal loses his capacity for civil conduct; or
(5) when the principal or the agent ceases to be a legal person.
Article 70
A statutory or appointed agency shall end under any of the following
circumstances:
(1) when the principal gains or recovers capacity for civil conduct;
(2) when the principal or the agent dies;
(3) when the agent loses capacity for civil conduct;
(4) when the people's court or the unit that appointed the agent rescinds
the appointment; or
(5) when the guardian relationship between the principal and the agent
ends for other reasons.
Chapter V Civil Rights
Section 1 Property Ownership and Related Property Rights
Article 71
"Property ownership" means the owner's rights to lawfully possess,
utilize, profit from and dispose of his property.
Article 72
Property ownership shall not be obtained in violation of the law.
Unless the law stipulates otherwise or the parties concerned have agreed
on other arrangements, the ownership of property obtained by contract or
by other lawful means shall be transferred simultaneously with the
property itself.
Article 73
State property shall be owned by the whole people.
State property is sacred and inviolable, and no organization or individual
shall be allowed to seize, encroach upon, privately divide, retain or
destroy it.
Article 74
Property of collective organizations of the working masses shall be owned
collectively by the working masses. This shall include:
(1) land, forests, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land, beaches and
other areas that are stipulated by law to be under collective ownership;
(2) property of collective economic organizations;
(3) collectively owned buildings, reservoirs, farm irrigation facilities
and educational, scientific, cultural, health, sports and other
facilities; and (4) other property that is collectively owned.
Collectively owned land shall be owned collectively by the village
peasants in accordance with the law and shall be worked and managed by
village agricultural production cooperatives, other collective
agricultural economic organizations or villages' committees. Land already
under the ownership of the township (town) peasants' collective economic
organizations may be collectively owned by the peasants of the township
(town). Collectively owned property shall be protected by law, and no
organization or individual may seize, encroach upon, privately divide,
destroy or illegally seal up, distrain, freeze or confiscate it.
Article 75
A citizen's personal property shall include his lawfully earned income,
housing, savings, articles for daily use, objects d'art, books, reference
materials, trees, livestock, as well as means of production the law
permits a citizen to possess and other lawful property. A citizen's lawful
property shall be protected by law, and no organization or individual may
appropriate, encroach upon, destroy or illegally seal up, distrain, freeze
or confiscate it.
Article 76
Citizens shall have the right of inheritance under the law.
Article 77
The lawful property of social organizations, including religious
organizations, shall be protected by law.
Article 78
Property may be owned jointly by two or more citizens or legal persons.
There shall be two kinds of joint ownership, namely co-ownership by shares
and common ownership. Each of the co-owners by shares shall enjoy the
rights and assume the obligations respecting the joint property in
proportion to his share. Each of the common owners shall enjoy the rights
and assume the obligations respecting the joint property. Each co-owner
by shares shall have the right to withdraw his own share of the joint
property or transfer its ownership. However, when he offers to sell his
share, the other co-owners shall have a right of pre-emption if all other
conditions are equal.
Article 79
If the owner of a buried or concealed object is unknown, the object shall
belong to the state. The unit that receives the object shall commend or
give a material reward to the unit or individual that turns in the object.
Lost-and-found objects, flotsam and stray animals shall be returned to
their rightful owners, and any costs thus incurred shall be reimbursed by
the owners.
Article 80
State-owned land may be used according to law by units under ownership by
the whole people; it may also be lawfully assigned for use by units under
collective ownership. The state shall protect the usufruct of the land,
and the usufructuary shall be obligated to manage, protect and properly
use the land.
The right of citizens and collectives to contract for management of land
under collective ownership or of state-owned land under collective use
shall be protected by law. The rights and obligations of the two
contracting parties shall be stipulated in the contract signed in
accordance with the law.
Land may not be sold, leased, mortgaged or illegally transferred by any
other means.
Article 81
State-owned forests, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land, beaches,
water surfaces and other natural resources may be used according to law by
units under ownership by the whole people; or they may also be lawfully
assigned for use by units under collective ownership. The state shall
protect the usufruct of those resources, and the usufructuary shall be
obliged to manage, protect and properly use them.
State-owned mineral resources may be mined according to law by units under
ownership by the whole people and units under collective ownership;
citizens may also lawfully mine such resources. The state shall protect
lawful mining rights.
The right of citizens and collectives to lawfully contract for the
management of forests, mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land, beaches
and water surfaces that are owned by collectives or owned by the state but
used by collectives shall be protected by law. The rights and obligations
of the two contracting parties shall be stipulated in the contract in
accordance with the law.
State-owned mineral resources and waters as well as forest land,
mountains, grasslands, unreclaimed land and beaches owned by the state and
those that are lawfully owned by collectives may not be sold, leased,
mortgaged or illegally transferred by any other means.
Article 82
Enterprises under ownership by the whole people shall lawfully enjoy the
rights of management over property that the state has authorized them to
manage and operate, and the rights shall be protected by law.
Article 83
In the spirit of helping production, making things convenient for people's
lives, enhancing unity and mutual assistance, and being fair and
reasonable, neighbouring users of real estate shall maintain proper
neighbourly relations over such matters as water supply, drainage,
passageway, ventilation and lighting. Anyone who causes obstruction or
damage to his neighbour, shall stop the infringement, eliminate the
obstruction and compensate for the damage.
Section 2 Creditors' Rights
Article 84
A debt represents a special relationship of rights and obligations
established between the parties concerned, either according to the agreed
terms of a contract or legal provisions. The party entitled to the rights
shall be the creditor, and the party assuming the obligations shall be the
debtor.
The creditor shall have the right to demand that the debtor fulfil his
obligations as specified by the contract or according to legal provisions.
Article 85
A contract shall be an agreement whereby the parties establish, change or
terminate their civil relationship. Lawfully established contracts shall
be protected by law.
Article 86
When there are two or more creditors to a deal, each creditor shall be
entitled to rights in proportion to his proper share of the credit. When
there are two or more debtors to a deal, each debtor shall assume
obligations in proportion to his share of the debt.
Article 87
When there are two or more creditors or debtors to a deal, each of the
joint creditors shall be entitled to demand that the debtor fulfil his
obligations, in accordance with legal provisions or the agreement between
the parties; each of the joint debtors shall be obliged to perform the
entire debt, and the debtor who performs the entire debt shall be entitled
to ask the other joint debtors to reimburse him for their shares of the
debt.
Article 88
The parties to a contract shall fully fulfil their obligations pursuant to
the terms of the contract.
If a contract contains ambiguous terms regarding quality, time limit for
performance, place of performance, or price, and the intended meaning
cannot be determined from the context of relevant terms in the contract,
and if the parties cannot reach an agreement through consultation, the
provisions below shall apply:
(1) If quality requirements are unclear, state quality standards shall
apply; if there are no state quality standards, generally held standards
shall apply.
(2) If the time limit for performance is unclear, the debtor may at his
convenience fulfill his obligations towards the creditor; the creditor may
also demand at any time that the debtor perform his obligations, but
sufficient notice shall be given to the debtor.
(3) If the place of performance is unclear, and the payment is money, the
performance shall be effected at the seat or place of residence of the
party receiving the payment; if the payment is other than money, the
performance shall be effected at the seat or place of residence of the
party fulfilling the obligations.
(4) If the price agreed by the parties is unclear, the state-fixed price
shall apply. If there is no state-fixed price, the price shall be based on
market price or the price of a similar article or remuneration for a
similar service.
If the contract does not contain an agreed term regarding rights to patent
application, any party who has completed an invention-creation shall have
the right to apply for a patent.
If the contract does not contain an agreed term regarding rights to patent
application, and technological research achievements, the parties shall
all have the right to use such achievements.
Article 89
In accordance with legal provisions the agreement between the parties on
the performance of a debt may be guaranteed using the methods below:
(1) A guarantor may guarantee to the creditor that the debtor shall
perform his debt. If the debtor defaults, the guarantor shall perform the
debt or bear joint liability according to agreement. After performing the
debt, the guarantor shall have the right to claim repayment from the
debtor.
(2) The debtor or a third party may offer a specific property as a pledge.
If the debtor defaults, the creditors shall be entitled to keep the pledge
to offset the debt or have priority in satisfying his claim out of the
proceeds from the sale of the pledge pursuant to relevant legal
provisions.
(3) Within the limits of relevant legal provisions, a party may leave a
deposit with the other party. After the debtor has discharged his debt,
the deposit shall either be retained as partial payment of the debt or be
returned. If the party who leaves the deposit defaults, he shall not be
entitled to demand the return of the deposit; if the party who accepts the
deposit defaults, he shall repay the deposit in double.
(4) If a party has possession of the other party's property according to
contract and the other party violates the contract by failing to pay a
required sum of money within the specified time limit, the possessor shall
have a lien on the property and may keep the retained property to offset
the debt or have priority in satisfying his claim out of the proceeds from
the sale of the property pursuant to relevant legal provisions.
Article 90
Legitimate loan relationships shall be protected by law.
Article 91
If a party to a contract transfers all or part of his contractual rights
or obligations to a third party, he shall obtain the other party's consent
and may not seek profits therefrom. Contracts which according to legal
provisions are subject to state approval, such as transfers, must be
approved by the authority that originally approved the contract, unless
the law or the original contract stipulates otherwise.
Article 92
If profits are acquired improperly and without a lawful basis, resulting
in another person's loss, the illegal profits shall be returned to the
person who suffered the loss.
Article 93
If a person acts as manager or provides services in order to protect
another person's interests when he is not legally or contractually
obligated to do so, he shall be entitled to claim from the beneficiary the
expenses necessary for such assistance.
Section 3 Intellectual Property Rights
Article 94
Citizens and legal persons shall enjoy rights of authorship (copyrights)
and shall be entitled to sign their names as authors, issue and publish
their works and obtain remuneration in accordance with the law.
Article 95
The patent rights lawfully obtained by citizens and legal persons shall be
protected by law.
Article 96
The rights to exclusive use of trademarks obtained by legal persons,
individual businesses and individual partnerships shall be protected by
law.
Article 97
Citizens who make discoveries shall be entitled to the rights of
discovery. A discoverer shall have the right to apply for and receive
certificates of discovery, bonuses or other awards.
Citizens who make inventions or other achievements in scientific and
technological research shall have the right to apply for and receive
certificates of honour, bonuses or other awards.
Section 4 Personal Rights
Article 98
Citizens shall enjoy the rights of life and health.
Article 99
Citizens shall enjoy the right of personal name and shall be entitled to
determine, use or change their personal names in accordance with relevant
provisions. Interference with, usurpation of and false representation of
personal names shall be prohibited. Legal persons, individual businesses
and individual partnerships shall enjoy the right of name. Enterprises as
legal persons, individual businesses and individual partnerships shall
have the right to use and lawfully assign their own names.
Article 100
Citizens shall enjoy the right of portrait.
The use of a citizen's portrait for profit without his consent shall be
prohibited.
Article 101
Citizens and legal persons shall enjoy the right of reputation. The
personality of citizens shall be protected by law, and the use of insults,
libel or other means to damage the reputation of citizens or legal persons
shall be prohibited.
Article 102
Citizens and legal persons shall enjoy the right of honour. It shall be
prohibited to unlawfully divest citizens and legal persons of their
honorary titles.
Article 103
Citizens shall enjoy the right of marriage by choice. mercenary marriages,
marriages upon arbitrary decision by any third party and any other acts of
interference in the freedom of marriage shall be prohibited.
Article 104
Marriage, the family, old people, mothers and children shall be protected
by law. The lawful rights and interests of the handicapped shall be
protected by law.
Article 105
Women shall enjoy equal civil rights with men.
Chapter VI Civil Liability
Section 1 General Stipulations
Article 106
Citizens and legal persons who breach a contract or fail to fulfil other
obligations shall bear civil liability.
Citizens and legal persons who through their fault encroach upon state or
collective property or the property or person of other people shall bear
civil liability. Civil liability shall still be borne even in the absence
of fault, if the law so stipulates.
Article 107
Civil liability shall not be borne for failure to perform a contract or
damage to a third party if it is caused by force majeure, except as
otherwise provided by law.
Article 108
Debts shall be cleared. If a debtor is unable to repay his debt
immediately, he may repay by instalments with the consent of the creditor
or a ruling by a people's court. If a debtor is capable of repaying his
debt but refuses to do so, repayment shall be compelled by the decision of
a people's court.
Article 109
If a person suffers damages from preventing or stopping encroachment on
state or collective property, or the property or person of a third party,
the infringer shall bear responsibility for compensation, and the
beneficiary may also give appropriate compensation.
Article 110
Citizens or legal persons who bear civil liability shall also be held for
administrative responsibility if necessary. If the acts committed by
citizens and legal persons constitute crimes, criminal responsibility of
their legal representatives shall be investigated in accordance with the
law.
Section 2 Civil Liability for Breach of Contract
Article 111
If a party fails to fulfil its contractual obligations or violates the
term of a contract while fulfilling the obligations, the other party shall
have the right to demand fulfillment or the taking of remedial measures
and claim compensation for its losses.
Article 112
The party that breaches a contract shall be liable for compensation equal
to the losses consequently suffered by the other party.
The parties may specify in a contract that if one party breaches the
contract it shall pay the other party a certain amount of breach of
contract damages; they may also specify in the contract the method of
assessing the compensation for any losses resulting from a breach of
contract.
Article 113
If both parties breach the contract, each party shall bear its respective
civil liability.
Article 114
If one party is suffering losses owing to the other party's breach of
contract, it shall take prompt measures to prevent the losses from
increasing; if it does not promptly do so, it shall not have the right to
claim compensation for the additional losses.
Article 115
A party's right to claim compensation for losses shall not be affected by
the alteration or termination of a contract.
Article 116
If a party fails to fulfil its contractual obligations on account of a
higher authority, it shall first compensate for the losses of the other
party or take other remedial measures as contractually agreed and then the
higher authority shall be responsible for settling the losses it
sustained.
Section 3 Civil Liability for Infringement of Rights
Article 117
Anyone who encroaches on the property of the state, a collective or
another person shall return the property; failing that, he shall reimburse
its estimated price. Anyone who damages the property of the state, a
collective or another person shall restore the property to its original
condition or reimburse its estimated price. If the victim suffers other
great losses therefrom, the infringer shall compensate for those losses as
well.
Article 118
If the rights of authorship (copyrights), patent rights, rights to
exclusive use of trademarks, rights of discovery, rights of invention or
rights for scientific and technological research achievements of citizens
or legal persons are infringed upon by such means as plagiarism,
alteration or imitation, they shall have the right to demand that the
infringement be stopped, its ill effects be eliminated and the damages be
compensated for.
Article 119
Anyone who infringes upon a citizen's person and causes him physical
injury shall pay his medical expenses and his loss in income due to missed
working time and shall pay him living subsidies if he is disabled; if the
victim dies, the infringe shall also pay the funeral expenses, the
necessary living expenses of the deceased's dependents and other such
expenses.
Article 120
If a citizen's right of personal name, portrait, reputation or honour is
infringed upon, he shall have the right to demand that the infringement be
stopped, his reputation be rehabilitated, the ill effects be eliminated
and an apology be made; he may also demand compensation for losses.
The above paragraph shall also apply to infringements upon a legal
person's right of name, reputation or honour.
Article 121
If a state organ or its personnel, while executing its duties, encroaches
upon the lawful rights and interests of a citizen or legal person and
causes damage, it shall bear civil liability.
Article 122
If a substandard product causes property damage or physical injury to
others, the manufacturer or seller shall bear civil liability according to
law. If the transporter or storekeeper is responsible for the matter, the
manufacturer or seller shall have the right to demand compensation for its
losses.
Article 123
If any person causes damage to other people by engaging in operations that
are greatly hazardous to the surroundings, such as operations conducted
high aboveground, or those involving high pressure, high voltage,
combustibles, explosives, highly toxic or radioactive substances or high-
speed means of transport, he shall bear civil liability; however, if it
can be proven that the damage was deliberately caused by the victim, he
shall not bear civil liability.
Article 124
Any person who pollutes the environment and causes damage to others in
violation of state provisions for environmental protection and the
prevention of pollution shall bear civil liability in accordance with the
law.
Article 125
Any constructor who engages in excavation, repairs or installation of
underground facilities in a public place, on a roadside or in a passageway
without setting up clear signs and adopting safety measures and thereby
causes damage to others shall bear civil liability.
Article 126
If a building or any other installation or an object placed or hung on a
structure collapses, detaches or drops down and causes damage to others,
its owner or manager shall bear civil liability, unless he can prove
himself not at fault.
Article 127
If a domesticated animal causes harm to any person, its keeper or manager
shall bear civil liability. If the harm occurs through the fault of the
victim, the keeper or manager shall not bear civil liability; if the harm
occurs through the fault of a third party, the third party shall bear
civil liability.
Article 128
A person who causes harm in exercising justifiable defence shall not bear
civil liability. If justifiable defence exceeds the limits of necessity
and undue harm is caused, an appropriate amount of civil liability shall
be borne.
Article 129
If harm occurs through emergency actions taken to avoid danger, the person
who gave rise to the danger shall bear civil liability. If the danger
arose from natural causes, the person who took the emergency actions may
either be exempt from civil liability or bear civil liability to an
appropriate extent. If the emergency measures taken are improper or exceed
the limits of necessity and undue harm is caused, the person who took the
emergency action shall bear civil liability to an appropriate extent.
Article 130
If two or more persons jointly infringe upon another person's rights and
cause him damage, they shall bear joint liability.
Article 131
If a victim is also at fault for causing the damage, the civil liability
of the infringe may be reduced.
Article 132
If none of the parties is at fault in causing damage, they may share civil
liability according to the actual circumstances.
Article 133
If a person without or with limited capacity for civil conduct causes
damage to others, his guardian shall bear civil liability. If the guardian
has done his duty of guardianship, his civil liability may be
appropriately reduced.
If a person who has property but is without or with limited capacity for
civil conduct causes damage to others, the expenses of compensation shall
be paid from his property. Shortfalls in such expenses shall be
appropriately compensated for by the guardian unless the guardian is a
unit.
Section 4 Methods of Bearing Civil Liability
Article 134
The main methods of bearing civil liability shall be:
(1) cessation of infringements;
(2) removal of obstacles;
(3) elimination of dangers;
(4) return of property;
(5) restoration of original condition;
(6) repair, reworking or replacement;
(7) compensation for losses;
(8) payment of breach of contract damages;
(9) elimination of ill effects and rehabilitation of reputation; and
(10) extension of apology.
The above methods of bearing civil liability may be applied exclusively or
concurrently. When hearing civil cases, a people's court, in addition to
applying the above stipulations, may serve admonitions, order the offender
to sign a pledge of repentance, and confiscate the property used in
carrying out illegal activities and the illegal income obtained therefrom.
It may also impose fines or detentions as stipulated by law.
Chapter VII Limitation of Action
Article 135
Except as otherwise stipulated by law, the limitation of action regarding
applications to a people's court for protection of civil rights shall be
two years.
Article 136
The limitation of action shall be one year in cases concerning the
following:
(1) claims for compensation for bodily injuries;
(2) sales of substandard goods without proper notice to that effect;
(3) delays in paying rent or refusal to pay rent; or
(4) loss of or damage to property left in the care of another person.
Article 137
A limitation of action shall begin when the entitled person knows or
should know that his rights have been infringed upon. However, the
people's court shall not protect his rights if 20 years have passed since
the infringement. Under special circumstances, the people's court may
extend the limitation of action.
Article 138
If a party chooses to fulfil obligations voluntarily after the limitation
of action has expired, he shall not be subject to the limitation.
Article 139
A limitation of action shall be suspended during the last six months of
the limitation if the plaintiff cannot exercise his right of claim because
of force majeure or other obstacles. The limitation shall resume on the
day when the grounds for the suspension are eliminated.
Article 140
A limitation of action shall be discontinued if suit is brought or if one
party makes a claim for or agrees to fulfillment of obligations. A new
limitation shall be counted from the time of the discontinuance.
Article 141
If the law has other stipulations concerning limitation of action, those
stipulations shall apply.
Chapter VIII Application of Law in Civil Relations with Foreigners
Article 142
The application of law in civil relations with foreigners shall be
determined by the provisions in this chapter.
If any international treaty concluded or acceded to by the People's
Republic of China contains provisions differing from those in the civil
laws of the People's Republic of China, the provisions of the
international treaty shall apply, unless the provisions are ones on which
the People's Republic of China has announced reservations. International
practice may be applied to matters for which neither the law of the
People's Republic of China nor any international treaty concluded or
acceded to by the People's Republic of China has any provisions.
Article 143
If a citizen of the People's Republic of China settles in a foreign
country, the law of that country may be applicable as regards his capacity
for civil conduct.
Article 144
The ownership of immovable property shall be bound by the law of the place
where it is situated.
Article 145
The parties to a contract involving foreign interests may choose the law
applicable to settlement of their contractual disputes, except as
otherwise stipulated by law. If the parties to a contract involving
foreign interests have not made a choice, the law of the country to which
the contract is most closely connected shall be applied.
Article 146
The law of the place where an infringing act is committed shall apply in
handling compensation claims for any damage caused by the act. If both
parties are citizens of the same country or have established domicile in
another country, the law of their own country or the country of domicile
may be applied.
An act committed outside the People's Republic of China shall not be
treated as an infringing act if under the law of the People's Republic of
China it is not considered an infringing act.
Article 147
The marriage of a citizen of the People's Republic of China to a foreigner
shall be bound by the law of the place where they get married, while a
divorce shall be bound by the law of the place where a court accepts the
case.
Article 148
Maintenance of a spouse after divorce shall be bound by the law of the
country to which the spouse is most closely connected.
Article 149
In the statutory succession of an estate, movable property shall be bound
by the law of the decedent's last place of residence, and immovable
property shall be bound by the law of the place where the property is
situated.
Article 150
The application of foreign laws or international practice in accordance
with the provisions of this chapter shall not violate the public interest
of the People's Republic of China.
Chapter IX Supplementary provisions
Article 151
The people's congresses of the national autonomous areas may formulate
separate adaptive or supplementary regulations or provisions in accordance
with the principles of this Law and in light of the characteristics of the
local nationalities. Those formulated by the people's congresses of
autonomous regions shall be submitted in accordance with the law to the
Standing Committee of the National People's Congress for approval or for
the record. Those formulated by the people's congresses of autonomous
prefectures or autonomous counties shall be submitted to the standing
committee of the people's congress in the relevant province or autonomous
region for approval.
Article 152
If an enterprise owned by the whole people has been established with the
approval of the competent authority of a province, autonomous region or
centrally administered municipality or at a higher level and it has
already been registered with the administrative agency for industry and
commerce, before this Law comes into force, it shall automatically qualify
as a legal person without having to re-register as such.
Article 153
For the purpose of this Law, "force majeure" means unforeseeable,
unavoidable and insurmountable objective conditions.
Article 154
Time periods referred to in the Civil Law shall be calculated by the
Gregorian calendar in years, months, days and hours.
When a time period is prescribed in hours, calculation of the period shall
begin on the prescribed hour. When a time period is prescribed in days,
months and years, the day on which the period begins shall not be counted
as within the period; calculation shall begin on the next day.
If the last day of a time period falls on a Sunday or an official holiday,
the day after the holiday shall be taken as the last day.
The last day shall end at 24:00 hours. If business hours are applicable,
the last day shall end at Closing Time.
Article 155
In this Law, the terms "not less than," "not more than," "within" and
"expires" shall include the given figure; the terms "under" and "beyond"
shall not include the given figure.
Article 156
This Law shall come into force on January 1, 1987.
