概念
Task Based Language Teaching
任務型教學從學生的基本心理需求出發，認為學習是滿足個體內部需要的過程，在教學目標上注重突出教學的情意功能，追求學生在認知、情感和技能目標上的均衡達成。它強調教學中學生基本心理的滿足，特別是歸屬感和影響力，具有較強的情感性。它強調教學只有創造條件，通過一系列任務的完成，滿足學生的歸屬感和影響力，他們才會感到學習是有意義的，才會願意學，才會學得好。任務型教學的整個教學過程都充滿了情意色彩。
概述
作為一種教學法，具有結構性，它由教學目標(goals)、信息輸入(input)、活動方式(activity)、師生角色(teacher/student role)、教學環境(setting)等要素組成。任務型教學法與傳統教學法之間的差異在於前者注意信息溝通，活動具有真實性而且活動量大。英語課堂教學應具有“變化性互動”的各項活動，即任務。學生在完成任務過程中進行對話性互動，進而產生語言習得。正由於任務型教學模式具有上述性質和特點，在英語課程改革不斷深化的背景下，倡導選擇和運用任務型教學以期更好地完成課程目標就成為一種歷史的必然。
任務型教學認為，以功能為基礎的教學活動中有許多活動並不是來自真實生活，因此最多只能稱其為“準交際（quasi-communication）”活動（D. Nunan，1989），而要培養學生在真實生活中參與和完成真實的生活任務（real-life tasks）（D. Nunan，1989）。真實生活任務教學強調直接通過課堂教學讓學生用英語完成各種真實的生活、學習、工作等任務（即做各種事情），從而培養學生運用英語的能力（用英語做事的能力）。顯然，真實生活任務的關鍵在於任務要有真實生活的特徵。
由來
任務型教學法的理論基礎基於語言習得的研究成果，課堂中師生和生生的互動和交際有助於學生運用語言，學生在完成任務的過程中產生語言的習得，並最終達到掌握語言的目的。其理論基礎是輸入與互動假設（input and interaction hypothesis）（Ellis，1999）。Skehan（1998）對任務有如下論述：意義優先，任務完成為主，評估基於任務完成與否。也就是說，任務應重視學生如何溝通信息，而不強調學生使用何種形式；任務具有在現實生活中產生的可能性，而不是“假交際”；學生應把學習的重點放在如何完成任務上；對任務進行評估的標準是任務是否成功完成。因此，《英語課程標準》指出“活動要以學生的生活經驗和興趣為出發點，內容和方式要儘量真實，要有利於學生學習英語知識、發展語言技能，從而提高交際的語言套用能力”。
教學環節
英國語言學家Jane Willis(1996)在她的專著A Framework for Task-based Learning 中提出了任務型課堂教學的三個步驟：
1．前任務(Pre-Task)――教師引入任務。
2．任務循環流程(Task-cycle)：
a. 任務(task)――學生執行任務；
b. 計畫(planning)――各組學生準備如何向全班報告任務完成的情況；
c. 報告(reporting)――學生報告任務完成情況。
3．語言聚焦(Language focus)：
a. 分析(analysis)――學生通過錄音分析其他各組執行任務的情況；
b. 操練(practice)――學生在教師指導下練習語言難點。
任務型的課堂教學中教師在教的過程中要做的首要環節就是呈現任務，讓學生在任務的驅動下學習語言知識和進行技能訓練。這樣的學習過程是任務驅動（task-driven）的過程，它有利於提高學生的學習興趣和增強學生的學習動力，同時也有利於體現任務的真實性。如果教師不是在課堂教學一開始呈現任務，而是在知識學習和技能訓練結束後再呈現並讓學生完成，那么這就不是任務驅動型的教學過程，學生的學習動力就不如任務驅動過程中那么強烈。所以，真實運用任務的學習過程實際上就是課堂教學的過程。此時，學生就進入了參與任務的環節。
任務環(Task-cycle) 是實施任務型課堂教學的核心部分。任務型課堂教學活動根據其互動特點可大致分為五類：故事鏈任務（小組中每人講一段故事，全小組講完整個故事）；信息差任務（兩組或多組信息互補，協商完成任務）；解決問題任務（圍繞一個問題或根據一系列信息，找出解決問題的辦法）；做決定任務（圍繞一個和多個結果，通過協商或討論作出選擇）；觀點交換任務（通過討論，相互交換意見，不必達成共識）。其中信息差任務具有合作性和多元成果性的特徵；同時信息差任務過程簡單，也易於課堂操作。在豐富多彩的任務的驅動下，學生就能運用自己的思維通過完成具體的任務主動地去習得英語，積極、主動地參與到各種任務中來，真正地做到“Learning by doing”，並從中獲得和積累相應的學習經驗，享受成功的喜悅。
任務的完成是任務型教學程式的最後環節。在時機成熟時，教師就可以讓學生圍繞新知識點、突出主題進行遷移操練，學生通過完成任務學到的知識和形成的技能轉化成在真實生活中運用英語的能力。
國內外任務型教學模式的研究與發展
美國教育家杜威（1859-1952）以實用主義的認識作為教育理論基礎，提出了“學生中心，從做中學”的教育模式，他主張教育的中心應從教師和教科書轉到學生，教學應引導學生在各種活動中學習。語言學家HerbortH.Clark（1996）說：Language is for doing things.“學習語言既不是背誦孤言的單詞，也不是熟記脫離語境的句子，更不是記憶枯燥乏味的語法規則，而應當教會學生用恰當的語言把要求做的事情做好，辭彙和語法都是為“做事情”並“完成任務”服務的，課堂上教師的任務就是在語言運用的活動中把辭彙，語法和功能項目有機地結合起來。20世紀70年代，N.S.Prabhu在印度進行了一頂強交際法的實驗（Bargalore Project），他提出了許多任務類型，並把學習的內容設計成各種交際任務讓學生通過完成任務進行學習。
基本模式
作為課堂教學的一種活動，任務型教學至少具備以下兩個特點：（l）以任務為中心．而不是以操練某種意義不大．甚至無意義的語言形式為目的；（2）任務的焦點是解決某一交際問題，這一交際問題必須與現實世界有著某種聯繫，這種聯繫應該是具體的，貼近學生生活、學習經歷和社會文際，能引起學生的共鳴和興趣，激發學生積極參與的欲望。在任務型語言教學中，教師要從學生“學”的角度來設計教學活動，使學生的學習活動具有明確的目標，並構成一個有梯度的連續活動。在教師所設計的各種“任務”中：學生能夠不斷地獲得知識或得出結論，從注重語言本身轉變為注重語言習得．從而獲得語言運用的能力而不是僅僅掌握現成的語言知識點、隨著“任務”的不斷深化．整個語言學習的過程會越來越自動化和自主化。
課堂教學的基本步驟
任務由以下三個部分組成：
1、任務的目標(Goals)。指通過讓學生完成某一項任務而希望達到的目的。任務的目標可以是培養學生說英語的自信心，解決某項交際問題，也可以是訓練某一項基本技能等。
2、構成任務內容的輸入材料(Input)。輸入材料必須具有知識性，應以現實生活中的交際為目的，是學生在一種自然、真實、或模擬真實的情景中體會語言，從而學習語言而不是局限與教材。
3、基於這些材料而設計的各項活動(Activities)。任務的設計由簡到繁，由易到難，前後想連，層層深入，並由數個微任務(mint-task)構成一串“任務鏈”。在語言技能方面，遵循先輸入後輸出原則，使教學階梯式層層推進。
Disadvantages and problems in employing TBLT
In fact, no method is perfect in the world, and TBLT is not an exception. We find the
following eight disadvantages from our study and experiment on TBLT. The first two are
indicated by Su Dingfang (1996:165), and the last six are our findings.
1) The tasks or questions chosen in task-based or procedural syllabus are lack of
convincible foundation or criterion.
2) TBLT can’t tell the inner relationship between certain activities and learners’ current
needs. In other words, the syllabus or methodology focused on the process is not
very coherent between the process and the outcome.
3) Before the task begins, if teachers don’t explain any concerned language knowledge,
learners will have many language obstacles when they carry on the task.
4) Because the time for task performance is limited and at the same time students will
have to accomplish the task within the time frame, students tend to neglect the
language forms and they will heavily depend on the communicative strategy. They
will use incorrect language or communicative strategy avoiding the language form
in order to get to the meaningful communication goal. The incorrect language used
again and again will become reinforced in the student’s mind so that it will obstruct
the development of the linguistic competence of the student.
5) TBLT requires a high level of creativity and initiative on the part of the teacher. If
teachers are limited to move traditional roles or do not have the time and resources
to implement tasked-based teaching, this type of teaching may be impossible.
6) It is very difficult to ensure the systematisation and sequence of tasks, for example,
the grading and coherence of the task.
7) Sometimes, the classroom is difficult to control, so it looks like chaos. Junior
middle school learners are usually animated, if teachers fail to manage and monitor
the class well, the classroom will be out of the order.
8) Evaluation of TBLT can be difficult. Traditional discrete-point achievement tests are
often not a good measure of assessing learners’ language achievement that is
acquired in TBLT. We know that TBLT requires teachers to develop the learners’
integrated language proficiency including listening, speaking, reading and writing,
and learners’ abilities in thinking, reasoning, autonomy, cooperation, etc. as well,
but traditional tests can’t tell us all about them.
Solutions to the problems
On the basis of the analysis of the above disadvantages and problems, we suggest the
following measures so as to solve the problems encountered in the implementation of TBLT.
1) Scientific grouping
Our classroom English teaching is on a small scale. That is to say, when the English
class comes, the original natural class will be divided into two small sections with about 25
persons each. If we make a group of 4, there will be 6-7 groups in each small class. Such
class division will be good for teachers to monitor learners’ classroom activities and good for
learners to have more chances in the use of the target language.
2) Integrated assessment
In traditional examination, we often design listening test and written work. However,
this is not enough or fair to a learner’s assessment. In TBLT, we focus on the development of
a learner’s integrated qualities. It is very necessary to design a few oral tests besides written
tests. However, if oral tests are only managed in the mid-term or at the end of a term, time is
very limited. So it is much more scientific to have the oral tests occur through the whole
teaching process.
3) More out-of-class activities
TBLT heavily focuses on the individual creativity and the cooperation of the group. If
we often hold such out-of-class activities as English corner, English drama, English
story-telling etc, a student’s timidness or shyness will disappear and they can take what theyhave learned to the classroom. If so, their speaking ability will be well developed. Acquiring
such a good habit, they may perform freely and actively participate in each task.
4) Ideas sharing
Teachers who teach in the same grade prepare a teaching plan together in order to settle
the problems when they meet the difficulty. It is called that each one exerts each effort. In
other words, two heads are better than one.
5) Full use of school recourses
Actually the school facilities will affect whether the teaching and learning succeed or
not. The multi-media classroom not only optimises the teaching process in TBLT, but also
saves time so that learners can have greater space and more time to consider and carry out
the classroom activities. Furthermore, in the writing class, students may directly send e-mails
they have written to the teacher. Of course, they are fond of the reply that the teacher has
corrected and mailed back to them.
6) Developing the teacher’s qualities
TBLT requires teachers much more, including a high level of teaching skill and subject
knowledge. In TBLT, we have to focus on the meaningful English communication, rather
than language form. TBLT requires teachers so much so that they should have stronger
listening and oral competence. After class, the members of our project group often learn
from each other or take refresher courses and feedback together.
7) Transfer from CA
In the past 10 years, we have used Communicative Approach (CA) in ELT. Each of us
has successful experience. TBLT belongs to CA category. We advocate making a good
distinction among them and try to use the experience available in TBLT. It is a wise way to
do like that, and this is the positive transfer that psycholinguistics mean.
8) Learning from the experts or colleagues
Here the experts or colleagues mean those who are engaged in the study of TBLT
domain. If a TBLT forum is held, we had better not miss it. In such forums many experts will
gather together sharing all the experience. A big TBLT forum sponsored by Beijing
Zhongxing Publishing House in Beijing in October 2002, with David Nunan and over 400
people from all over the country attendance, is a successful conference. So is the 2003
National Middle School English Curriculum standard & Classroom Teaching Reform
Conference held on April 6th,in Nanning, Guangxi, whose participants are over 3000
people.
Result of the experimental implementation of TBLT
After implementing TBLT, we find out that learners’ linguistic and communicative
competence and thinking ability etc. are very well developed. TBLT is strictly designed to
foster students’ participation consciousness, unitedness consciousness and creativity, and
greatly help students mobilize and motivate their potentialities by completing the tasks.
TBLT can also help students learn to communicate, learn to think about a question, learn to
make a decision and deal with an emergency. Furthermore, by accomplishing the task,
students can also experience the sense of achievement and realize their own value. TBLT
involves the collaboration between teacher and learners, and among learners. In carrying onthe task, the teacher should pay close attention to the team’s participation and creative spirits.
Because the students in junior middle schools are very active and animated, the tasks can
successfully engage their enthusiastic commitment. In addition, TBLT can greatly improve
the integrated ability of a student, which is in accordance with the general target of the
empowerment education in China.
Our chief initial achievement of the experimental implementation of TBLT can be
summarized in the following:
1) Learners show much more autonomy in learning language.
2) The average of the final examination is 5-15 scores higher than the mean scores in
the controlled groups.
3) Learners are very fond of the Textbooks we’ve chosen, which is named Expressions
written by David Nunan.
4) Nineteen learners took 2003NEPCS (final) and eleven of them came to the first place.
In fact, learners have got many great successes in all kinds of contests.
5) Learners’ linguistic competence has greatly improved, for example, some of them
from junior Grade1 or Grade2 have passed CET4 .
Now we are still implementing TBLT with great confidence and we believe that we can
successfully overcome the problems encountered in the employment of TBLT.
